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AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 
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THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS 



REPORT BY THE COMMITTEE OF SEVF/N". 

ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN, Chairman. 
HERBERT B. ADAMS. CHARLES H. H ASK INS. 

GEORGE L. FOX. LUCT M. SALMON. 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. K. MO'R'SE STEPHENS. 



(From tlie Anntfal Report of the American Historical Association i'or 1808, 
pages 427-564, -with index.) 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1899. 



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XXL— THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS, BEING THE REPORT 

TO THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 

BY THE COMMITTEE OF SEVEN. 

ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN, Chairman. 
HERBERT B. ADAMS. CHARLES H. HASKINS. 

GEORGE L. FOX. LUCY M. SALMON. 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. H. MORSE STEPHENS. 



427 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

Preliminary work of the committee 430 

Value of historical study 437 

Continuity of historical study and the relation of history to other 

subjects 443 

Four years' course, consisting of four blocks or periods 446 

Why no short course in general history is recommended 451 

How the different blocks or periods may be treated 456 

I. Ancient history 456 

II. Mediaeval and modern European history 459 

III. English history 463 

IV. American history 467 

V. Civil government 471 

Methods of instruction 473 

Sources 481 

Intensive study 486 

The need of trained teachers 486 

College-entrance requirements 489 

Entrance examinations 495 

Appendix I. — The present condition of history teaching in American 

secondary schools 499 

Appendix II. — Study of history below the secondary school 511 

Appendix III. — History in the German gymnasia 519 

Appendix IV. — History in French lycdes 533 

Appendix V. — History in English secondary schools 539 

Appendix VI. — History in Canadian secondary schools 551 

Appendix VII. — Some books and articles on the teaching of history . 556 

Appendix VIII. — Maps and atlases 560 

428 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 



PEEFACE. 



Ill the early winter of 1896 the committee making the fol- 
lowing report was appointed by the American Historical 
Association to consider the subject of history in the secondary 
schools and to draw up a scheme of college-entrance require- 
ments in history.- Since that time we have held live meetings, 
each lasting several days ; at each of these meetings all the 
members of the committee have been present, except that Pro- 
fessor Salmon was absent in Europe during the last two. 
Every question involving doubt has been carefully, thoroughly, 
and systematically discussed, and in the conclusions here 
presented all the members concur. 

Of the seven persons composing the committee only one is 
a teacher in a secondary school; three others, however, have 
been secondary school teachers, while others have been 
interested for years in the general problems under considera- 
tion. Although we felt that we had at the beginning some 
knowledge of the situation, and knew of the difficulties and 
limitations as well as of the accomplishments of the schools, 
it seemed necessary to make a careful study of the whole ques- 
tion and to gather information concerning the conditions and 
the tendencies of historical instruction. " We have endeavored, 
in the light of the actual facts, to prepare a report that may 
be useful and suggestive to teachers of history aud that may 
furnish to superintendents and principals some assistance in 
the task of framing programmes and in determining methods 
of work. We have sought to be helpful rather thau merely 
critical or depreciatory, aud have tried to consider the whole 
field in a broad and general way, remembering that we were 
making suggestions and recommendations, not for the schools 
of one section or of one kind, but for the schools of the nation. 

429 



430 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

PRELIMINARY WORK OF THE COMMITTEE. 

History? as a secondary study, now demands serious atten- 
tion. The report of the National Commissioner of Education 
for 1896-97 shows that there were at that time 186,581 pupils 
in the secondary schools studying history (other than United 
States history). No statistics have been collected to show the 
number studying the history and government of the United 
States; but there is good ground for saying that, if such stu- 
dents were taken into account, the number of history pupils 
would be found to exceed 200,000, and would perhaps equal 
if not exceed in number those engaged in the study of any 
other subject save algebra. According to the statistics of the 
Bureau of Education the number of pupils studying history 
(other than United States history) has increased 152 per cent 
in the last ten years, a rate of increase below that of only one 
subject in the curriculum. These simple facts seem to make 
it plain that college-entrance requirements, that are properly 
based upon the work and tendencies of the secondary schools, 
should include a liberal amount of history among the pre- 
scribed and optional studies. 

An investigation of the subject of history, as it is studied 
and taught in the secondary schools, presents many difficulties. 
Even before the committee began seriously to consider what 
work was to be done, it became apparent that only a thorough 
study would be profitable, that general conclusions or recom- 
mendations, even on such a question as that of college entrance 
requirements, could not be made without an examination of 
the whole field and a consideration of many fundamental prin- 
ciples or without ascertaining what was doing in the high 
schools and academies of the country. 

Before this work was undertaken there had not been any 
systematic attempt of this kind; nor had there been any pro- 
longed effort by any national association to present the claims 
of history, or to set before the schoolmen a statement of what 
might be considered the value of historical study and the 
place which it should occupy in the school programme. We 
do not leave out of consideration the work of the Committee 
of Ten, nor do we underestimate the value or the effect of the 
able and highly interesting report of the Madison Conference 
on History, Civil Government, and Economics; 1 and we do 



1 This conference was held in December, 1892; its conclusions form a part of the report 
of the Committee of Ten, published by the Bureau of Education in 1893, and reprinted by 
the American Book Company, New York, 1894, 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 431 

not .ose sight of the fact that historical instruction in the 
secondary schools had often been discussed in pedagogical con- 
ferences and teachers' associations. Before we began our 
work it was plain that there was an awakening interest in 
this whole subject, and the time seemed to be at hand when a 
systematic effort would meet with response and produce results. 
But iu spite of all that had been done, and in spite of this 
awakened interest, there was no recognized consensus of ojjin- 
ion in the country at large, not one generally accepted judg- 
ment, not even one well-known point of agreement, which 
would serve as a beginning for a consideration of the place of 
history in the high-school curriculum. Such a statement can 
not be made concerning any other subject commonly taught in 
the secondary schools. The task of the committee was, there- 
fore, to discover the actual situation, to see what was doing 
and what was the prevailing sentiment, to localize and estab- 
lish a modicum of practices and principles, however small and 
limited it might be; and, having apprehended what was best 
and most helpful in spirit and tendency among teachers of the 
country, to seek to give that spirit expression in a report that 
would be helpful and suggestive, and that would be of 'service 
in widening the field of agreement and in laying the founda- 
tions for a common understanding. 

In all of our work we have endeavored not only to discover 
any agreement or common understanding that may exist 
among American teachers, but to keep in mind the fact that 
local conditions and environments vary exceedingly 5 that what 
may be expected of a large and well-equipped school need not 
be expected of a small one, and that large preparatory schools 
and academies, some of them intentionally fitting boys for one 
or two universities, are in a situation quite unlike that in 
which the great majority of high schools are compelled to 
work. We have sought chiefly to discuss, in an argumenta- 
tive way, the general subject submitted for consideration; to 
offer suggestions as to methods of historical teaching and as 
to the place of history on the school programme, being fully 
aware that, when all is said and done, only so much will be 
adopted as appeals to the sense and judgment of the second- 
ary teachers and superintendents, and that any rigid list of 
requirements or any body of peremptory demands, however 
judiciously framed, not only would but should be disregarded 
in schools whose local conditions make it unwise to accept 
them. 



432 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

The committee determined that every reasonable means 
should be used to ascertain the present condition of historical 
study. Several hundred circulars asking for information were 
sent out to schools in all parts of the United States, selected 
not because they were supposed to be exceptionally good or 
exceptionally bad or unusually strong in historical work, but 
because they were recommended to the committee by compe- 
tent authority as typical schools. Circulars were sent to dif- 
ferent kinds of schools — to those in small towns as well as to 
those in large cities, and to private academies as well as to 
public high schools. About 250 replies have been received, 
and the information thus gathered is presented and discussed 
in Appendix I to this report. 

But to seek information through printed interrogatories is 
always somewhat unsatisfactory, and the committee therefore 
used other means also. Steps were taken to secure full discus- 
sions in the different educational associations of the country, 
in order that many teachers might become interested in the 
work of the committee and give needful information, and in 
order that there might be a free interchange of opinion on 
some of the more important problems that called for solution. 
Discussions on some portions of our report have been held by 
the New England History Teachers' Association, tbe Associ- 
ation of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States 
and Marylaud, the Michigan Schoolmasters' Club, the Eound 
Table in History of the National Educational Association, and 
by other educational bodies, as well as at two meetings of the 
American Historical Association. Moreover, at various times 
in the course of the past two years different members of the 
committee have personally consulted teachers and talked the 
subject over with them. These efforts seem to demonstrate 
that we have not reached conclusions hastily, and that our 
report is not merely the expression of the theoretical aspira- 
tions of college professors who are unacquainted with the con- 
ditions of tbe secondary schools. It is, in a very proper sense, 
the result of careful examination and systematic inquiry con- 
cerning the secondary conditions of the country. 

It is not necessary to review here, in detail, the conclusions 
reached from a study of the circulars received from the schools. 
It will be seen by an examination of these conclusions, as pre- 
sented in the Appendix, that in regard to many matters on 
which we sought information there is little or no agreement. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 433 

Concerning the amount of history offered, the fields of history 
studied, the order in which the different fields are taken up, 
and the years in which the subject is taught, there is much 
diversity of practice; but, on the other hand, we find marked 
approach to uniformity in one particular, namely, that good 
schools in all parts of the United States have adopted sub- 
stantially similar methods of instruction. It is perfectly plain 
that the old rote system is going by the board. Practically 
every school now reports the use of material outside the text- 
book, and recognizes that a library is necessary for efficient 
work 5 and nearly all teachers assign topics for investigation 
by the pupil, or give written recitations, or adopt like means 
of arousing the pupil's interest and of leading him to think 
and work in some measure independently, in order that he 
may acquire power as well as information. 1 Of course these 
methods are more extensively developed in some schools than 
in others; but the facts point to a common understanding, or 
at least to the approach toward a common understanding, of 
what history teaching should be, and to a growing appreciation 
of what historical study can do. We venture to say that if a 
school has well-trained teachers, who know why they teach 
and how to teach, the order of historical studies, or the exact 
method of handling a field of historical inquiry, is compara- 
tively unimportant; and it is this evidence of a realization 
that history has a value as a pedagogical subject, indicating 
as it does a new interest on the part of teachers and directors 
of schools, and bringing surely in its train a demand for skill- 
ful teachers, which should give courage and hope to those who 
are interested in the successful use of history as a means of 
discipline and culture. 

In matters of detail, the conclusions that could be drawn from 
the replies to the circulars were somewhat meager, but they 
were helpful in enabling the committee to judge of tendencies 
and to form a general opinion as to existing conditions. But, 
as we have already said, we have not contented ourselves with 
this method of ascertaining the situation. By the more per- 
sonal means adopted we have gained information which can 
not readily be tabulated, but which enables us to have some 
assurance concerning the tendencies of the time, and to feel 

1 Undoubtedly the report of the Madison Conference had a rery beneficial influence in 
this direction, by calling the attention of the teachers of the country to what ideals of 
historical instruction are. 

hist 98 28 



434 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

that in many respects present conditions are not satisfactory 
to the active, progressive teachers of the country. It is often 
more valuable to tind out how one highly successful teacher 
attains his end than how twenty unsuccessful teachers do not; 
and to discover what practical, experienced teachers, who have 
given thought to the subject, think can be done and should 
be done, than to know the static condition of twenty others 
who are content with the semi- success or the failure of the 
present. 

In the summer of 1897 three members of the committee were 
studying educational problems in Europe. Miss Salmon spent 
the summer in Germany and German Switzerland, studying 
the methods of historical instruction in the secondary schools. 
The results of her investigations were given in a paper read 
before the American Historical Association in December, 1897. 
Mr. Haskins has at different times studied the educational 
system of France; after a further examination of secondary 
conditions in 1897, he prepared a report on the subject of his- 
tory teaching in that country. Mr. Fox has a thorough ac- 
quaintance with the English public schools, and has prepared 
a report on the teaching of history in the secondary schools of 
England. These articles on the conditions of historical in- 
struction in European countries are given as appendices to 
this report. They are not offered as furnishing us models to 
which we ought to conform, but as investigations in the study 
of comparative education; they may, however, give to teachers 
of this country suggestions on the subject of general pedagog- 
ical values, methods of historical instruction, and the arrange- 
ment of studies. The committee has not supposed that it is 
possible to import a foreign-made regime to which the Ameri- 
can schools can be asked to adapt themselves. 

It will be seen that of foreign countries Germany is the 
one that offers to America the most lessons, of which proba- 
bly the most important is that suggested by the great advan- 
tage resulting from having the subject of history, as well as 
other subjects, in the hands of thoroughly equipped teachers, 
who have received instruction in method and are versed in 
the art of imparting information with due regard to the pupil's 
age and degree of mental advancement. In the German 
gymnasia the course of history, from Homeric times to the 
present day, is covered with great thoroughness and system. 
To this part of the report on the German schools we wish to 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 435 

call special attention, for while we do not think that it is prof- 
itable for us, even in this particular, to follow the German 
curriculum exactly, we believe that there should be an effort 
on the part of those who are organizing programmes to reach 
toward this ideal by extending the course of history over a 
number of years and by developing it in accordance with the 
psychological principles which have been adhered to in the 
preparation of the German course of study. It should be 
noticed, too, that in German schools history is correlated with 
other subjects. The teacher of history, where opportunity 
offers, makes use of the foreign language which the pupils 
are studying, and the language teacher refers to historical 
facts. One subject in the curriculum thus helps to reenforce 
another. The methods of the German teachers also deserve 
careful consideration. Interest is aroused by skillful oral 
teaching, in which the teacher adapts his story to the minds 
and capacities of his hearers and so holds their attention that 
concentration of mind and ability to grasp the subject are 
developed. It must be confessed that Miss Salmon's descrip- 
tion of how a teacher in Bale, in the middle of a hot summer 
day, held the breathless attention of a class of boys for fifty 
minutes while he told the story of the dramatic struggle 
between Henry IV and Gregory VII, suggests not only phe- 
nomenal methods but unusual boys; but withal we must 
attribute the teacher's success to his skill and to the previous 
training which the boys had received in the lower grades, 
where inattention or heedlessness was not tolerated. 

Doubtless teachers of history in this country can not follow 
the example of Germau teachers in all respects. The German 
believes that until the boy reaches the university he has no 
judgment to be appealed to and no great reasoning faculty to 
be developed; that it is his business, until 18 or 19 years of 
age, to absorb, not to argue or discuss. He is not expected to 
ask questions; he is expected to do what he is told. Such, 
however, is not the system for making American citizens and 
such is not the atmosphere in which the American boy or girl 
should live. Nor can it be said that under our present condi- 
tions the teacher of history should attempt to give instruction 
to secondary pupils without the help of a text. 

The system and methods of instruction in the schools of 
France are interesting, but somewhat less suggestive than 
those of the German schools. There, as in Germany, history 



436 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

is in the hands of trained teachers, who have a capacity for 
holding the pupil's attention, arousing interest, and develop- 
ing a love for historical study, as well as for giving a vast 
amount of historical information. The course of study is long, 
thorough, and systematically organized. The conditions of 
German Switzerland are essentially similar to those of Ger- 
many itself. 

The situation in England does not offer many valuable les- 
sons to American teachers. The most noticeable features are 
a lack of historical instruction, a common failure to recognize 
the value of history, and a certain incoherence and general 
confusion. We can not here discuss the reasons for these con- 
ditions. It is enough to say that the laissez faire idea has 
been carried farther and is more marked in England than in 
America; for, on the whole, we have an educational system, 
and each passing year shows an increase in the common stock 
of principles. And yet one who examines the condition of 
historical instruction in this country, and compares it with 
that of France and Germany, feels that Englishmen and Amer- 
icans are of one blood; the individualistic spirit of the races 
has found unusual expression in educational practices, and has 
made against cooperation and harmony, while instinctive aver- 
sion to theoretical arrangement has hindered the development 
of general principles. A comparison of English conditions 
with those of the continent will be likely to show the value of 
system and order, and the advantage resulting from the sway 
of good pedagogical doctrines. We must endeavor in America 
to reach a system of our own, and to recognize the force of 
sound principles, without losing sight of the fact that our 
local conditions are many, and that we must rely on individual 
initiative and enthusiasm, if not on impulse. Nevertheless, in 
spite of local diversity, and in spite of the fact that a rigid 
regime seems on the whole impossible, if not undesirable, in 
this country, there are sound general principles that may be 
termed absolute rather than relative; there is a proper method 
of unfolding the subject, and there are improper methods; or, 
to speak more justly, method and system, which recognize the 
true character of the study and the principles by which it may 
be adapted to pupils of different ages, are certainly wiser and 
better than any haphazard method and lack of system can be. 

While it is impossible to transplant any foreign course of 
study to our schools, and unwise to imitate blindly European 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 437 

methods of instruction, there are at least two lessons that may 
be learned from foreign schools, namely, the wisdom of demand- 
ing thoroughly trained teachers of history, and that of giving 
a large place to historical instruction in all courses. In both 
France and Germany, history is taught by special teachers, 
whose historical training has been carried to a point well 
beyond our American bachelor's degree, and whose pedagogical 
ability has been specially tested. In France, an hour and a 
half each week is given to history throughout the ten years of 
the elementary school and lycee; in Germany, history is pur- 
sued two or three hours weekly in every year of the nine years 
of the gymnasium ; and even in Eussia the time given to history 
is much longer than in the average American school. Not 
merely on these grounds, however, do we ask larger recogni- 
tion for history ; we hope to present, in the course of this 
report, substantial reasons for such recognition drawn from 
the nature of the subject and from its relations to the develop- 
ment of American boys and girls; but we call attention to 
what is now done in other countries as evidence that our 
recommendations are not fanciful or revolutionary. 

VALUE OF HISTORICAL STUDY. 

It may seem to be unnecessary to consider the value of his- 
torical study in itself, or to show how history may be related 
to other subjects in the school curriculum. As a matter of 
fact, however, the educational value of every other subject has 
received more attention than that of history; indeed, only 
within the last few years has there been anything like a 
thoughtful discussion by practical teachers of the worth of 
history as a disciplinary study. When so much has been said 
of the necessity of studying the natural sciences, in order that 
one may come to some realization of the physical and vital 
world about him, and may know himself better as he knows 
his surroundings more thoroughly and in order that his powers 
of observation may be quickened and strengthened, it seems 
strange indeed that the same method of argument has not 
been used in behalf of historical work. If it is desirable that 
the high-school pupil should know the physical world, that he 
should know the habits of ants and bees, the laws of floral 
growth, the simple reactions in the chemical retort, it is cer- 
tainly even more desirable that he should be led to see the 
steps in the development of the human race, and should have 



438 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

some dim perception of his own place, and of his country's 
place, in the great movements of men. One does not need to 
say in these latter days that secondary education ought to fit 
boys and girls to become, not scholastics, but men and women 
who know their surroundings and have come to a sympathetic 
knowledge of their environment; and it does not seem neces- 
sary now to argue that the most essential result of secondary 
education is acquaintance with political and social environ- 
ment, some appreciation of the nature of the state and society, 
some sense of the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, 
some capacity in dealing with political and governmental 
questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit which is 
bred by the study of past times and conditions. 

It is a law well recognized by psychologists, a law of which 
the teacher in school or college sees daily application and illus- 
tration, tbat one obtains knowledge by adding to the ideas 
which one already has new ideas organically related to the old. 
Recent psychological pedagogy looks upon the child as a re- 
acting organism, and declares that he should be trained in 
those reactions which he will most need as an adult. The 
chief object of every experienced teacher is to get pupils to 
think properly after the metbod adopted in his particular line 
of work; not an accumulation of information, but the habit of 
correct thinking, is the supreme result of good teaching in 
every branch of instruction. All this simply means that the 
student who is taught to consider political subjects in school, 
who is led to look at matters historically, has some mental 
equipment for a comprehension of the political and social 
problems that will confront him in everyday life, and has 
received practical preparation for social adaptation and for 
forceful participation in civic activities. 

We do not think that this preparation is satisfactorily 
acquired merely through the study of civil government, which, 
strictly construed, has to do only with existing institutions. 
The pupil should see the growth of the institutions which sur- 
round him; he should see the work of men; he should study 
the living concrete facts of the past ; he should know of nations 
that have risen and fallen; he should see tyranny, vulgarity, 
greed, benevolence, patriotism, self-sacrifice brought out in the 
lives and works of men. So strongly has this thought taken 
hold of writers of civil government, that they no longer con- 
tent themselves with a description of the government as it 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 439 

is, but describe at considerable length the origin and develop- 
ment of the institutions of which they speak. While we have 
no desire to underestimate the value of civil government as a 
secondary study, especially if it is written and taught from 
the historical point of view, we desire to emphasize the thought 
that appreciation and sympathy for the present is best secured 
by a study of the past; and while we believe that it is the 
imperative duty of every high school and academy to teach 
boys and girls the elementary knowledge of the political 
machinery which they will be called upon to manage as citizens 
of a free State, we insist also that they should have the broader 
knowledge, the more intelligent spirit, that comes from a study 
of other men and of other times. They should be led to see 
that society is in movement, that what one sees about him is 
not the eternal but the transient, and that in the processes of 
change virtue must be militant if it is to be triumphant. 

While it is doubtless true that too much may be made of 
the idea that history furnishes us with rules, precepts, and 
maxims which may be used as immutable principles, as unerring 
guides for the conduct of the statesman and the practical poli- 
tician or as means of foretelling the future, it is equally true 
that progress comes by making additions to the past or by its 
silent modification. All our institutions, our habits of thought 
and modes of action, are inheritances from preceding ages; no 
conscious advance, no worthy reform, can be secured without 
both a knowledge of the present and an appreciation of how 
forces have worked in the social and political organization of 
former times. If this be so, need we seriously argue that the 
boys and girls in the schoolroom should be introduced to the 
past, which has created the present— that historical-minded- 
ness should be in some slight measure bred within them, and 
that they should be given the habit, or the beginnings of a 
habit, of considering what has been when they discuss what 
is or what should be? 

Believing, then, that one of the chief objects of study is to 
bring boys and girls to some knowledge of their environment 
and to fit them to become intelligent citizens, we need hardly 
say that, if the study of history helps to accomplish this object, 
the public schools of the country are under the heaviest obliga- 
tions to foster the study, and not to treat it as an intruder 
entitled only to a berth in a cold corner, after language, mathe 
matics, science, music, drawing, and gymnastics have been 



440 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

comfortably provided for. "It is clear," as Thomas Arnold 
has said, " that in whatever it is our duty to act, those mat- 
ters also it is our duty to study." It is true that any subject 
which aids the pupil to think correctly to be accurate and 
painstaking, which awakens his interest in books and gives 
kiin resources within himself, in reality fits him for good 
and useful citizenship; but what other subjects do in this 
direction more or less indirectly, history does directly; and 
moreover, if properly taught, it is not inferior to other sub- 
jects as a disciplinary and educational study. Fortunately, 
an examination of school programmes, educational periodicals, 
and like material will now convince anyone that educators are 
coming to the conclusion that history must receive more atten- 
tion and must be taught wisely and well. 

History cultivates the judgment by leading the pupil to see 
the relation between cause and effect as cause and effect 
appear in human affairs. We do not mean by this that his 
attention should be directed solely to great moving causes, or 
that he should study what is sometimes called the "philosophy 
of history;" far from it. Nor do we mean that time should be 
consumed in discussing the meaning of facts when the facts 
themselves are not known. But history has to do with the 
becoming of past events, not simply with what was, but with 
what came to be, and in studying the simplest forms of his- 
torical narrative even the average pupil comes to see that one 
thing leads to another; he begins quite unconsciously to see 
that events do not simply succeed each other in time, but that 
one grows out of another, or rather out of a combination of 
many others. Thus, before the end of the secondary course 
the well-trained pupil has acquired some power in seeing rela- 
tionships and detecting analogies. While it is perfectly true 
that the generalizing faculty is developed late, and that the 
secondary pupil will often learn unrelated data with ease, if 
not with avidity, it is equally true that history in the hands of 
the competent teacher is a great instrument for developing in 
the pupil capacity for seeing underlying reasons and for com- 
prehending motives. In the ordinary class-room work, both 
in science and in mathematics, there is little opportunity for 
discussion, for differences of opinion, for balancing of proba- 
bilities; and yet in everyday life we seldom deal with math- 
ematical demonstrations or concern ourselves with scientific 
observations; we reach conclusions by a judicious considera- 
tion of circumstances and conditions, some of them in apparent 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 441 

conflict with one another and none of them susceptible of 
exact measurement and determination. 

The study of history gives training not only in acquiring 
facts but in arranging and systematizing them and in putting 
forth individual product. Power of gathering information is 
important, and this power the study of history cultivates; but 
the power of using information is of greater importance, and 
this power, too, is developed by historical work. We do not 
ask that pupils should be required to do so-called ''laboratory 
work" — we abjure the phrase — and create histories out of ab- 
solutely unhewn and unframed material; we simply say that 
if a pupil is taught to get ideas and facts from various books, 
and to put those facts together into a new form, his ability to 
make use of knowledge is increased and strengthened. By 
assigning well-chosen topics that are adapted to the capacity 
of the pupil, and by requiring him to gather his information 
in various places, the teacher may train the pupil to collect 
historical material, to arrange it, and to put it forth. This 
practice, we repeat, develops capacity for effective work, not 
capacity for absorption alone.' 

History is also helpful in developing what is sometimes called 
the scientific habit of mind and thought. In one sense this 
may mean the habit of thorough investigation for one's self of 
all sources of information before one reaches conclusions or 
expresses decided opinions. But only the learned specialist 
can thus test more than the most ordinary and commonplace 
truths or principles in any field of work. The scientific habit 
of mind in a broader sense means a recognition of the fact that 
sound conclusions do rest on somebody's patient investiga- 
tions ; that, although we must accept the work of others, every- 
body is required to study and think and examine before he 
positively asserts ; that every question should be approached 
without prejudice; that open mindedness, candor, honesty, are 
requisites for the attainment of scientific knowledge. The 
thoughtful teacher of experience will probably say that even 
in the earlier years of the secondary course these prime requi- 
sites of wholesome education may in some measure be culti- 
vated; and that, when opportunity for comparative work is 
given in the later years, historical mindedness may be so de- 
veloped as materially to influence the character and habits of 
the pupil. 

1 A consideration of what is said in a later division of this report on the methods of 
teaching will show more fully how history may bo used to this end. 



442 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

While we believe that power aud not information must be 
the chief end of all school work, we must not underestimate 
the value of a store of historical material. By the study of 
history the pupil acquires a knowledge of facts that is to him 
a source of pleasure and gratification in his after life. If there 
be any truth in the saying that culture consists of an acquaint 
auce with the best which the past has produced — a very insuf- 
ficient definition, to be sure — we need not argue about the 
value of historical information. But we may emphasize that 
brighter and broader culture which springs from a sympathy 
with the onward movements of the past and an intelligent 
comprehension of the duties of the present. Many a teacher 
has found that in dealing with the great and noble acts and 
struggles of bygone men he has succeeded in reaching the 
inner nature of the real boys and girls of his classes, and has 
given them impulses and honorable prejudices that are the 
surest sources of permanent and worthy refinement. We may 
venture to suggest that character is of even greater value than 
culture. 

A no less important result of historical study is the training 
which pupils receive in the handling of books. History, more 
than any other subject in the secondary curriculum, demands 
for effective work a library and the ability to use it. Skill in 
extracting knowledge from the printed page, or in thumbing 
indexes and fingering tables of contents, is of great value to 
anyone who is called upon to use books. The inability to 
discover what a book contains or where information is to be 
found is one of the common failings of the unschooled aud the 
untrained man. Through the study of history this facility in 
handling material may be cultivated, aud at the same time 
the pupil may be introduced to good literature aud inspired 
with a love for reading which will prove a priceless treasure 
to him. In this latter respect the study of history is second 
to that of English literature alone. 

With these results of historical study two others of decided 
value may in conclusion be briefly mentioned: By the reading 
of good books, and by constant efforts to recreate the real 
past and make it live again, the pupil's imagination is at once 
quickened, strengthened, and disciplined; and by means of 
the ordinary oral recitation, if properly conducted, he may be 
taught to express himself in well-chosen words. In the study 
of foreign language, he learns words and sees distinctions in 
their meanings; in the study of science, he learns to speak 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS 443 

with technical exactness and care ; in the study of history, 
while he must speak truthfully and accurately, he must seek 
to find apt words of his own with which to describe past con- 
ditions and to clothe his ideas in a broad field of work which 
has no technical method of expression and no peculiar phrase- 
ology. 

CONTINUITY OF HISTORICAL STUDY AND THE RELATION OF 
HISTORY TO OTHER SUBJECTS. 

We have no intention of framing a secondary-school course 
in which each study shall be carefully related in time aud 
space with every other. Such a process is, for the present at 
least, a task for each superintendent or principal in the con- 
duct of his own work. Certain suggestions, however, are 
pertinent, and may be helpful. 

We believe that, whenever possible, history should be a 
continuous study. In some schools it is now given in three 
successive years; in others it is offered in each of the four 
years of at least one course. Some practical teachers, im- 
pressed with this need of continuity and feeling unable to give 
more time to the work, have thought it wise to give the sub 
ject in periods of only two recitations per week for one year 
or more; and such a plan may prove desirable for the purpose 
of connecting two years in which the work is given four or five 
times per week, or for the purpose of extending the course. 
Probably two periods a week, however, will seem altogether 
impracticable to the great majority of teachers, and we do not 
recommend that this step be taken when the circumstances 
allow more substantial work. A practical working programme 
in one of the very best western schools presents the following 
course : 

Periods. 

Seventh grade, American history 4 

Eighth grade, American history 2 

Ninth grade (first year of high school), Greek and Roman history 3 

Tenth grade, English history 3 

Eleventh grade, institutional history 2 

Twelfth grade, American history 2 

Another school of high grade, where effective work is done, 
gives history in three periods per week for two years, and in 
five periods per week for two more years, viz : 

. Periods. 

First year of high school, Oriental, Greek, and Roman history 3 

Second year, mediyeval and modern European history 3 

Third year, English history 5 

Fourth year, American history, economics, and civics 5 



444 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

In both of these schools some of the historical work is 
optional or elective, other parts are required. These courses 
are given here simply to show how a long, continuous course 
may be arranged in case the circumstances make it inadvis- 
able to give work four or five times per week for four years. 
We do not recommend courses in which the study comes twice 
a week, but only say that in some instances they may prove 
advisable as a means of keeping the parts of the course in 
connection. We can not see our way clear to proposing the 
acceptance of a two hour course in history for entrance to col- 
lege, if units are counted or definite requirements are laid 
down. 

A secondary-school course in which there are many distinct 
subjects may furnish to the pupil only bits of information, 
and not give the discipline resulting from a prolonged and 
continuous application to one subject, which is gradually 
unfolded as the pupil's mind and powers are developed. A 
course without unity may be distracting, and not educating in 
the original and best sense of the word. At least in some 
courses of the high school or academy, history is the best sub- 
ject to give unity, continuity, and strength. Where a foreign 
language is pursued for four consecutive years, it serves this 
purpose; but in other cases it is doubtful whether anything 
can do the work so well as history. Even science has so many 
branches and distinct divisions — at all events as it is custom- 
arily taught — that it does not seem to be a continuous subject. 
Doubtless there are relationships between physiology, chem- 
istry, physics, botany, and physical geography, and of course 
the methods of work in all of them are similar; but to treat 
science as one subject, so that it may give opportunity for con- 
tinuous development of the pupil, and for a gradual unfolding 
of the problems of a single field of human study, seems to us 
to present many almost insurmountable difficulties. A com- 
mittee of historical students may be pardoued, therefore, for 
thinking that history furnishes a better instrument than sci- 
ence for such purposes. The history of the human race is one 
subject; and a course of four years can be so arranged as to 
make the study a continually developing and enlarging one, 
as the needs and capacities of the pupil are developed and 
enlarged. 

History should not be set at one side, as if it had no relation 
with other subjects in the secondary course. Ideal conditions 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 445 

will prevail when the teachers in one field of work are able to 
take wise advantage of what their pupils are doing in another ; 
when the teacher of Latin or Greek will call the attention of 
his pupils, as they read Caesar or Xenophon, to the facts which 
they have learned in their history classes ; when the teachers 
of French and German and English will do the same; when 
the teacher of physical geography will remember that the earth 
is man's dwelling place, or more properly his growing place, 
and will be able to relate the mountains, seas, and tides of 
which he speaks with the growth and progress of men; when 
he will remember that Marco Polo and Henry the Navigator 
and Meriwether Lewis were unfolding geography and making 
history, and that Cape Verde not only juts out into the Atlantic, 
but stands forth as a promontory in human history. Is the 
time far distant when the march of the Ten Thousand will be 
looked upon not merely as a procession of optative moods and 
conditional clauses, but as an account of the great victory of 
Greek skill, discipline, and intelligence over the helplessness 
of Oriental confusion ? And will Caesar long be taught only as 
a compound of ablative absolutes and indirect discourses, rather 
than as a story, told by one of history's greatest men, of how 
our Teutonic forefathers were brought face to face with Eoman 
power, and how the peoples of Gaul were subjected to the art 
and the arms of Eome, and made to pass under the yoke of 
bondage to southern civilization and southern law? The 
teacher of history, if he knows the foreign languages which 
his pupils are studying, may connect the words they have 
learned with concrete things; and he may, above all, help to 
give the young people who are trying to master a foreign 
tongue some appreciation of the tone, temper, and spirit of the 
people, without which a language seems void and characterless. 
History has a central position among the subjects of the 
curriculum. Like literature, it deals with man, and appeals 
to the sympathy, the imagination, and the emotional nature 
of the pupils. Like natural science, it employs methods of 
careful and unprejudiced investigation. It belongs to the 
humanities, for its essential purpose is to disclose human life; 
but it also searches for data, groups them, and builds gener- 
alizations from them. Though it may not be a science itself, 
its methods are similar to scientific methods, and are valuable 
in inculcating in the pupil a regard for accuracy and a rever- 
ence for truth. It corrects the formalistic bias of language by 



446 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

bringing the pupil into sympathetic contact with actualities 
and with the mind of man as it has reacted on his environ- 
ment. It gives breadth, outlook, and human interest, which 
are not easily developed by the study of natural phenomena. 
Thus, as a theoretical proposition, at least, the assertion that 
the story of the life and the onward movement of men, not their 
language or their physical environment, should form the center 
of a liberal course, would seem to leave little ground for 
argument. 

We may add to all these considerations the fact that even 
in the natural sciences, as well as in other subjects, the his- 
torical method is not seldom used by advanced scholars and 
thinkers. The scholarly scientific investigator knows from 
careful study the development of his subject; he sees the 
successes and the failures of the past, and recoguizes the last- 
ing contributions that have from time to time been made in 
his field of investigation; he often studies the civilization that 
gave birth to bygone and obsolete theories, and comes thus to 
a knowledge of his department of work as a growing and 
developing department. So, too, the advanced linguistic 
scholar is frequently engaged, not so much in the study of 
language as in the examination of successive intellectual 
movements which have found expression in literature. This 
practice of linking the present with the past, of watching 
progress and studying change, has become one of the marked 
characteristics of modern learning; and it indicates that his- 
tory, in the broad field of human affairs, is a subject which is 
contributory to others, is iudeed a part of them, aud occupies 
a central position among them. 

FOUR YEARS' COURSE, CONSISTING OF FOUR BLOCKS OR 
PERIODS. 

As a thorough and systematic course of study, we recom- 
mend four years of work, beginning with ancient history and 
ending with American history. For these four years we pro- 
pose the division of the general field into four blocks or periods, 
and recommend that they be studied in the order in which they 
are here set down, which in large measure accords with the 
natural order of events and shows the sequence of historical 
facts : 

(I) Ancient history, with special reference to Greek and 
Komau history, but including also a short introductory study 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 447 

of the more ancient nations. This period should also embrace 
the early Middle Ages, and should close with the establishment 
of the Holy Eoman Empire (800), or with the death of Charle- 
magne (814), or with the treaty of Verdun (843). 

(2) Medieval and Modern European History, from the close 
of the first period to the present time. 

(3) English History. 

(4) American History and Civil Government. 

No one of these fields can be omitted without leaving serious 
lacunae in the pupil's knowledge of history. Each department 
has its special value and teaches its special lesson; above all, 
the study of the whole field gives a meaning to each portion 
that it can not have by itself. Greek and Eoman civilization 
contributed so much to the world— the work which these 
nations accomplished, the thoughts which they brought forth, 
the ideas which they embodied, form so large a part of the 
past — that in any systematic course their history must be 
studied. The student of modern politics can not afford to be 
ignorant of the problems, the strivings, the failures of the 
republics and democracies of the ancient world. We speak 
of these nations as belonging to antiquity, but we have much 
of them with us to-day. The law of Rome has not gone; the 
highest tbought of Greece is eternal. 

We might justly insist that mediaeval history is worthy of a 
place in the school programme for its own sake, recounting as 
it does the development of the Papacy and the Church, the 
establishment of feudalism, the foundation of modern states, 
the Renaissance, and the beginning of the Reformation. But, 
if for no other reason, the history of the Middle Ages deserves 
study, because without it Greece and Rome are isolated and 
seem to dwell in a world apart. On the other hand, the char- 
acter of the forces of modern times can not be understood by 
one who examines them without reference to their mediaeval 
origins. 

Nor will anyone seriously maintain in these latter days, 
when men are studying world movements — when, as we are 
told, America has become a world power— that the intelligent 
citizen has no concern with the chief events and leading 
tendencies of the last four centuries of European history. 
It is especially desirable that American pupils learn something 
of European history, since, by seeing the history of their own 
country in its proper perspective, they may appreciate its 



448 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

meaning, and may be relieved of a temptation to a narrow 
intolerance, which resembles patriotism only as bigotry resem- 
bles faith. 

English history until 1776 is our history; Edward I and 
Pym, Hampden and William Pitt belong to our past and 
helped to make us what we are. Any argument in favor of 
American history, therefore, holds almost equally true for the 
study of English history. A realization of present duties, a 
comprehension of present responsibilities, an appreciation of 
present opportunities, can not better be inculcated than by a 
study of the centuries in which Englishmen were struggling 
for representation, free speech, and due process of law. 

The orderly chronological course which we here advocate 
has its marked advantages, but it should be so arranged that 
the pupil will do more than follow the main facts as he traces 
them from the earliest times to the present. The work must 
be so developed and widened, as time goes on, that in the 
final years the pupil will be dealing with broader and deeper 
problems than in the early years, and will be making use of 
the skill and scholarly sense that have been awakened and 
called into action by previous training. By a course of this 
sort pupils will obtain a conspectus of history which is fairly 
complete and satisfactory, will follow the forward march of 
events and will come to see the present as a product of the 
past; while the teacher, at the same time, will have oppor- 
tunity to unfold the problems and difficulties of historical 
study. 

The desirability of arranging historical fields of work in 
their natural chronological order will probably appeal to 
everyone, and need not be dwelt upon. Some persons, how- 
ever, may object to the arrangement as unwise, in the light of 
other considerations. It may be contended that pupils should 
pass "from the known to the unknown," from the familiar to 
the unfamiliar and strange. This precept we do not care 
formally to accept or to reject; but it will be remembered 
that in all primary and grammar schools some historical work 
is given, and that we can take for granted the probability that 
pupils know something of American history, and perhaps of 
other history, in addition. As a matter of fact, therefore, we 
are not running counter to the doctrine above referred to, or 
violating the law of apperception. 

A like objection may be met with a similar answer. Ameri- 
can history, some will say, should come the first year in the 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 449 

high school, because many pupils leave school before the later 
years. But this objection proves too much, for a large per- 
centage of boys and girls do not enter the high school at all. 
American history should therefore be given in the grammar 
school. In fact, it is given in the eighth and lower grades in 
probably the vast majority of schools; to repeat the course 
therefore in the first year of tbe secondary course is almost a 
waste of time, inasmuch as any marked development in the 
method of treatment is impossible. On the other hand, by 
putting tbe study late in the course, the pupil can work along- 
new lines and attack new problems; the development of 
American institutions can be studied; new and more difficult 
books can be read, and more advanced methods used. 

Some teachers, believing that American history is essential 
in every course, will object to the curriculum here suggested, 
on the ground that the last year is always overcrowded, and 
that we are asking the impossible when we suggest that the 
study be placed in that year. In any argument on such a 
subject, history is at a disadvantage, because other subjects 
have from time immemorial been considered first, while history 
has been treated as a poor and needy relative; other subjects 
have their places, and claim at once nine full points in law. 
If it is more important that pupils should have knowledge of 
chemistry, solid geometry, physics, Greek, English literature, 
Latin, and what not, than a knowledge of the essentials of the 
political and social life about them, of the nature and origin 
of the Federal Constitution, of their duties and rights as 
citizens, and of the fundamental ideas for which their country 
stands, then of course American history need not enter into 
the contest at all. In making these recommendations, how- 
ever, we are not acting upon merely theoretical grounds; an 
investigation of existing conditions leads us to believe that 
there is a strong tendency to place American history in the 
last year of the course. 

It will be argued, again, that Greek and Roman history is 
too difficult for the first year. To this we may answer, (1) that 
a number of excellent and successful teachers give the subject 
in the first year, and (2) that it is not necessary to fathom all 
the mysteries of the Athenian constitution, or to penetrate the 
innermost secrets of Roman imperialism. It is not impossible 
to know the main outlines of Greek and Roman history and to 
see the main features of Greek and Roman life. If Caesar, a 
hist 98 29 



450 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

great source of Roman history, can be studied iu the original 
iu the tenth grade, with all the supplementary information on 
military and historical matters which recent editors present, 
can not secondary material in the vernacular be studied in the 
ninth? While we do not think that Greek and Roman history 
should be treated as a handmaiden of the Latin and Greek 
languages (to treat the subjects thus is to invert the natural 
relationship), we suggest that a course in ancient history in 
the first year will serve to give life and meaning to all the 
work in the classic tongues. The idea may come home to the 
pupil that Cassar and Cicero were real, living, thinking, acting 
men, and not imaginative creatures begotten by the brains of 
modern grammar-mongers to vex the soul of the schoolboy. 
If this basis of fact is in the pupil's mind, the classical teacher 
can amplify it in the later years of the high-school course, and 
can with far greater assurance use the language that he is 
teaching as a medium for bringing his pupils into contact with 
the thoughts and moving sentiments of antiquity. 

Some one may object that medieval and modern European 
history is too difficult for the tenth grade, and that other sub- 
jects should come at that time. The answer to such objection 
is, of course, that any other subject is too difficult if taught in 
its height and depth and breadth, but that the cardinal facts 
of European history can be understood, interesting and intel- 
ligible books can be read, the significant lessons can be learned. 
How many boys, when they are 16 years old, can not under- 
stand "The Scottish Chiefs," ''The Three Musketeers," 
"Twenty Years After," " Ivanhoe," "The Talisman," "With 
Eire and Sword?" And is the simple, truthful historic tale of 
border conflict, the life and purposes of Richelieu, the death 
of Charles I, the career of Richard the Lion-Hearted, the char- 
acter of Saladin, the horrible barbarism of Tartar hordes 
harder to be understood than the plot of an elaborate histori- 
cal noveL dealing with the same facts'? Is truth necessarily 
more difficult, as well as stranger, than fiction? But the con- 
clusive answer to this objection is the fact that European his- 
tory in its most difficult form, " general history," is now taught 
in the second year in the greater part of the schools which 
offer the subject. 

The committee may be criticised for outlining a four years' 
course at all, on the ground that no schools can devote so 
much time to history. This criticism is so important that the 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 451 

reasons which influenced us to take this action should be given 
seriatim : (1) Some schools do offer history in every year of the 
high school, either as a required or as an optional study; and 
the delineation of what seems to us a thorough and systematic 
•regime m'ay be of service to these schools and to all others that 
desire to devote considerable time and energy to the subject. 
(2) If some schools can not give all that is here proposed, that 
fact presents no reason why an adequate course should not be 
outlined. We are not seeking to induce schools to give history 
a great amount of attention at the expense of other subjects; 
but a course altogether complete and adequate needs to be 
outlined before one can rightly discuss the availability of any- 
thing else. (3) An approach to an ideal course, in order of 
subjects, method, treatment, and time, is better than one that 
is constructed without any reference to the best and most sym- 
metrical system. (4) As a general rule, definite parts of the 
plan which we here outline may be taken as a working scheme. 
It is not necessary to draw up, on an entirely new theory, a 
briefer curriculum for schools that can not take the whole of 
what we here recommend; the simplest and wisest plan under 
such circumstances is to omit one or more of the blocks or 
periods into which we have divided the general field. 

If only three years can be devoted to historical work, three 
of the periods outlined above may be chosen and one omitted; 
such omission seems to us to be better than any condensation 
of the whole. But if any teacher desires to compress two of 
the periods into a single year's work, one of the following plans 
may be wisely adopted: (1) Combine English and American 
history in such a manner that the more important principles 
wrought out in English history, and the main facts of English 
expansion, will be taught in connection with American colonial 
and later political history. (2) Treat English history in such 
a way as to include the most important elements of mediaeval 
and modern European history. 

WHY NO SHORT COURSE IN GENERAL HISTORY IS RECOM- 
MENDED. 

Erom the foregoing it will be seen that the committee 
believes that history should be given in four consecutive 
years in the secondary school, and that the study should be 
developed in an orderly fashion, with reasonable regard for 
chronological sequence; in other words, that four years should 



452 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

be devoted to the study of the world's history, giving the 
pupil some knowledge of the progress of the race, enabliug 
him to survey a broad field and to see the main acts in the 
historical drama. While, of course, three years for such study 
are better than two, as two are better than one, a careful con- 
sideration of the problem in all its aspects has led us to the 
conclusion that we can not strongly recommend as altogether 
adequate courses covering the whole field in less than four 
years. 

We do not recommend a short course in general history 
because such a course necessitates one of two modes of treat- 
ment, neither of which is sound and reasonable. By one 
method energy is devoted to the dreary, and perhaps profit- 
less, task of memorizing facts, dates, names of kings and 
queens, and the rise and fall of dynasties; there is no oppor- 
tunity to see how facts arose or what they effected, or to study 
the material properly, or to see the events in simple form as 
one followed upon another, or to become acquainted with the 
historical method of handling definite concrete facts and draw- 
ing inferences from them. The pupil is not introduced to the 
first principles of historical thinking; he is not brought into 
sympathy with men and ideas, or led to see the play of human 
forces, or given such a real knowledge of past times and condi- 
tions that he can realize that history has to do with life, with 
the thoughts, aspirations, and struggles of men. By the 
second method pupils are led to deal with large and general 
ideas which are often quite beyond their comprehension — ideas 
which are general inferences drawn by the learned historian 
from a well-stored treasure-house of definite data; they are 
taught to accept unquestioningly broad generalizations, the 
foundations of which they can not possibly examine, as they 
must do if they are to know how the historical student builds 
his inferences, or how one gains knowledge of the general 
truths of history. The first method is apt to heap meaning- 
less data together; facts crowd one upon another; there is no 
moving drama, but at the very best, perhaps, a series of kalei- 
doscopic pictures, in which the figures are arranged with 
seaming arbitrariness. If the second alternative be followed, 
all is order and system; the pawns of the great game are 
folks and nations; the more effective chessmen are world- 
moving ideas. The experienced college teacher knows full well 
that students entering upon historical work will learn facts 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 453 

without seeing relationships; that "tendency" is a word of 
unknown dimensions; and that his first task is to lead his 
pupils to see how definite facts may be grouped into general 
facts, and how one condition of things led to another, until 
they come to a realizing sense of the fact that history deals 
with dynamics, not statics, and that drifts, tendencies, and 
movements are to be searched for by the proper interpreta- 
tion of definite data, and the proper correlation of definite deeds 
and acts, with special reference to chronological sequence. If 
college students must thus be led to the comprehension of his- 
torical forces and general ideas, what hope is there that a 
general history, dealing only with tendencies, will be adapted 
to high-school needs? 

But while we do not think that a secondary- school pupil can 
be brought to handle large generalizations, we do believe that 
if the time devoted to a period of history be sufficiently long 
to enable him to deal with the acts of individual men and to 
see their work, he can be taught to group his facts; and that 
a power of analysis and construction, a capacity for seeing 
relationships and causes, an ability to grasp a general situa- 
tion and to understand how it came to be, can be developed in 
him; and that he can be brought to see that for the historian 
nothing is, but everything is becoming. In all such work, 
however, the teacher must begin with ideas and facts that are 
not altogether unfamiliar — with the activities, the impulses, 
the concrete conduct of men. We do not mean by this that 
constitutional and social questions can not be studied, that 
political movements can not be interpreted, or that the bio- 
graphical system suitable for the lower grades should be con- 
tinued through the secondary course. On the contrary, the 
pupil should be led to general facts just as soon as possible, 
and should be induced to see inferences and the meanings of 
acts at the earliest possible moment. 1 He must not only have 
a well-articulated skeleton of facts, but he must see movement, 
life, human energy. And yet the average pupil will follow the 
course of Julius Caesar or Augustus, when he can not under- 
stand just why the Roman Republic was overthrown; he can 
know much of the work of Constantine, when he can not 
appreciate the influence of Christianity on the destinies of 

1 Let it be remembered that the course in history in tlie high school should have for its 
purpose the gradual awakening and developing of power. Pupils are often precipitated 
into general history, and asked to tax their powers of imagination and to grasp move 
nients when they are entirely without experience or training. 



454 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

Borne and the world; he can see what Charlemagne did, when 
he can not comprehend the nature or character of the Holy 
Eoman Empire; he is interested in Danton and Mirabeau, 
when he can not realize the causes, characteristics, and effects 
of the French Eevolution. It is impossible for one who knows 
only of mayors, constables, and county clerks to reach out at 
once into a comprehension of the great motive forces iu the 
world's history. 

We ask, then, for a course in history of such length that 
the pupil may get a broad and somewhat comprehensive view 
of the general field, without having, on the one hand, to cram his 
memory with unrelated, meaningless facts, or, on the other hand, 
to struggle with generalizations and philosophical ideas beyond 
his ken. We think that a course covering the whole field of 
history is desirable, because it gives something like a proper 
perspective and proportion ; because the history of man's 
activities is one subject, and the present is the product of all 
the past; because such a study broadens the mental horizon 
and gives breadth and culture; because it is desirable that 
pupils should come to as full a realization as possible of their 
present surroundings, by seeing the long course of the race 
behind them; because they ought to have a general conspectus 
of history, in order that more particular studies of nations or 
of periods may be seen in something like actual relation with 
others. We think, however, that quite as important as per- 
spective or proportion are method and training, and a compre- 
hension of the essential character of the study. 

In exact accord with the principles here advocated all work 
iu natural science is now conducted: A pupil is taught to 
understand how the simple laws of physics or chemistry are 
drawn up ; he is induced to think carefully and logically about 
what he sees, and about the meaning of the rules and funda- 
mental truths which he is studying, in order that he may learn 
the science by thinking in it rather than by getting a bird's- 
eye view of the field. We do not argue that secondary pupils 
can be made constructive historians, that a power can be bred 
in them to seize for themselves essential data and weave a new 
fabric, that the mysteries of the historian's art can be dis- 
closed to them, or that they can be taught to play upon a 
nation's stops with an assured and cunning hand. But every 
study has its methods, its characteristic thinking, its own 
essential purpose; and the pupil must be brought into some 



THE STUDY OP HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 455 

sympathy with the subject. He must know history as history, 
just as he knows science as science. 

Any comparison between history and science is apt to be 
misleading. The method of the one study, for purposes of 
instruction at least, is not the method of the other. We do 
not suppose that Eichelieu or William the Silent can be treated 
with any sort of moral reagent or examined as a specimen 
under any high-power lens. And yet in some respects we may 
learn lessons from methods of scientific instruction. The mod- 
ern teacher of botany does not endeavor to have his pupils 
learn a long list of classified shrubs, to know all the families 
and species by heart, or to make a telling synopsis of even any 
considerable section of the world's flora; he examines a more 
limited field with care, and asks the students to see how seeds 
germinate and how plants grow, and to study with a microscope 
a piece of wood fiber or the cross section of a seed. This he 
does in order that the pupils may see the real subject, may 
know botany, and acquire the habit of thinking as men of sci- 
ence think ; not, let it be understood, that he may discover new 
laws of floral growth or develop for himself a single principle, 
rule, or system of classification. And so in history. While 
we do not urge that pupils be asked to extort their knowledge 
from the raw material, or to search through the documents to 
find the data which learned scholars have already found for 
them, we do ask that the old system of classification, and the 
old idea that one must see the whole field before he studies a 
part of it, be altogether given up, if an effort to know the 
outlines of the whole means that the pupil has not sufficient 
opportunity to study history as history, to see how men moved 
aud acted, to know that history deals with the sequence of 
events in time. To insist upon a general comprehension of the 
world's history before examining a part with care would be 
quite as reasonable as to ask a pupil to study the circle of the 
sciences before he analyzes a flower or works an air pump. 

While we believe that pupils can advantageously use the 
sources, chiefly as illustrative material, we are not now arguing 
for the source system or insisting that he should be trained to 
handle original material. Skill in finding facts in documents 
or contemporary narratives, however desirable that may be, 
is not the sole end of historical instruction anywhere, and 
above all in the secondary schools. Even the historian is 
doing but a small part of his work when he is mousing through 



456 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

his material arid gathering this fact and another from forgot- 
ten corners. One of his most important and most difficult 
tasks is to detect the real meaning of events, and so to put 
his well-tested data together that their proper import and their 
actual interrelations are brought to view. History, we say- 
again, has to do with the sequence of events in time, and what 
we contend for is such a course in history as will enable one to 
see sequence and movement; — the words are not synonymous. 
This simple essential of historical work — an essential, however, 
often lost sight of completely — must not be neglected. We 
believe the pupil should study history, and not something else 
under the name of history — neither philosophy on the one 
hand nor the art of historical investigation on the other. 

HOW THE DIFFERENT BLOCKS OR PERIODS MAY BE TREATED. 

We may now briefly consider each one of the main divisions 
of the general field, and discuss the method in which it may 
best be handled. This portion of our report might be greatly 
extended, but we wish to confine ourselves to a consideration 
of general propositions, which are deemed important because 
they have to do with the essential character and purpose of 
the study. 

I. — Ancient History. 

Greek and Boinan history is taught in a large number of the 
secondary schools, and in some schools no other branch of his- 
tory is offered. This preference is explained by the evolution 
of the curriculum in which the Greek and Latin languages 
were long the dominant subjects, Greek and Eoman history 
being thrust in at a later time as ancillary to the study of the 
ancient languages. In some schools the history remains a 
subordinate subject, corning once or twice a week, and, even 
then, it is often in the hands of a classical instructor who is 
more interested in linguistics than in history and has had no 
training in historical method. The course is apt to be confined 
to the histories of Greece and Rome; the Orient is not infre- 
quently omitted; the medineval relations of Eome are usually 
ignored. The perspective and emphasis within the field 
covered have been determined by literary and linguistic, 
rather than by historical, considerations, with the result that 
the chief attention is devoted to the periods when great writers 
lived and wrote. Too much time, for example, is commonly 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 457 

given to the Pelopormesian war, while the Hellenistic period 
is neglected. The history of the early Roman Bepnblic is dwelt 
upon at the expense of the empire, although very little is known 
of the early times. It sometimes seems as if the ghost of Livy 
were with us yet. 

The committee thinks that the time has come when ancient 
history may be studied independently as an interesting, 
instructive, and valuable part of the history of the human 
race. Classical pupils need such a study, not to support their 
classical work, but to give them a wider and deeper knowledge 
of the life, thought, and character of the ancient world; and 
nonclassical pupils need the work still more than the clas- 
sical, for in this study they are likely to find their only oppor- 
tunity of coming into contact with ancient ideas. We ask, 
then, that ancient history be'taught as history, for the same 
purpose that any other branch of history is taught — in order 
that pupils may learn the story of human achievement and be 
trained in historical thinking. 

To bring out the value of ancient history, it is especially 
important that Greek and Roman history should not be iso- 
lated, but that there should be some reference to the life and 
influence of other nations, and some comprehension of the 
wide field, which has a certain unity of its own. There should 
be a short introductory survey of Oriental history, as an indi- 
spensable background for a study of the classical people. 
This survey must be brief, and in the opinion of the committee 
should not exceed one-eighth of the entire time devoted to 
ancient history. It should aim to give (a) an idea of the 
remoteness of these Oriental beginnings, of the length and 
reach of recorded history; (b) a definite knowledge of the 
names, location, and chronological succession of the early 
Oriental nations; (c) the distinguishing features of their civi- 
lizations, as concretely as possible; (d) the recognizable lines 
of their influence on later times. The essential factors in this 
period may perhaps best be seen by concentrating attention 
first on the kingdoms of the two great valleys — that of the 
Nile and that of the Tigris and Euphrates — and by bringing 
in the lesser peoples of the connecting regions as the great 
empires spread northward and meet. Persia may be taken 
up afterwards, and its conquests may serve as a review of the 
others. 

Although, of course, Greek history should include a short 



458 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

study of early times, and should disclose the growth of Athens 
and Sparta and the characteristic life of the great classical 
period, it should not, on the other hand, omit an account of 
the chief events of the Hellenistic age, but should give some 
idea of the conquests of Alexander, of the kingdoms that arose 
out of them, and of the spread of Greek civilization over the 
East, so important in relation to the influence of Greece upon 
later times. It should also give the main events in the later his- 
tory of Greece, and should show the connection between Greek 
and Roman history. Time for this survey may well be saved by 
omitting the details of the Peloponnesian war, which crowd 
so many text-books. This period should be used largely as 
connective tissue, to hold Greek and Eoman history together; 
it should be approached first from the Greek side, and after- 
wards be reviewed in connection with the Roman conquest of 
the East. Care should be taken to show the overlapping of 
Greek and Roman history chronologically, and to avoid the 
notuncommon impression among pupils thatRome was founded 
after the destruction of Corinth. 

The treatment of Roman history should be sufficiently full 
to correspond to its importance. Too much time, as it seems 
to the committee, is often spent upon the period of the Repub- 
lic, especially on the early years, and too little upon that of 
the Empire. Adequate attention is not always paid to the 
development of Roman power and the expansion of Roman 
dominion. Some idea should be given of the organization of 
the world-state and of the extension of Roman civilization. 
Recognizing fully the difficulty of this x>eriod, and not seeking 
to force upon the pupils general ideas that confuse them, the 
teacher should endeavor to make them acquainted, not simply 
with emperors and praetorian guards, but with the wide sway 
of Rome; and not so much with the "falling" of Rome, as with 
the impression left upon western Christendom by the spirit 
and character of the Eternal City. This, we think, can be done 
by the careful use of concrete facts and illustrations, not by 
the use of philosophical generalizations. Probably most of 
us remember that our impressions from early study were 
that Rome really gave up the ghost with the accession of 
Augustus — is that idea due to that good republican Livy, 
again u ? And if Ave studied the empire at all, we wondered 
why it took four hundred years and more for her to tread all 
the slippery way to Avernus, when once she had entered upon 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 459 

the road. To get such an impression is to lose the truth of 
Rome. 

The continuation of ancient history into the early Middle 
Ages has a manifest convenience in a programme of two years' 
work in European history. It secures an equitable adjustment 
of time and a reasonable distribution of emphasis between the 
earlier and later periods. If the pupil stops his historical work 
at the end of the first year, it is desirable that he should not 
look upon classical history as a thing apart, but that he should 
be brought to see something of what followed the so-called 
" Fall" of the Western Empire. Moreover, it is difficult to find 
a logical stopping place at an earlier date; one can not end 
with the introduction of Christianity, or with the Germanic 
invasions, or with the rise of Mohammedanism; and to break 
off with the year 476 is to leave the pupil in a world of con- 
fusion — the invasions only begun, the Church not fully organ- 
ized, the Empire not wholly "fallen." Hence, from motives of 
clearness alone, there is a gain in carrying the pupil on to an 
age of comparative order and simplicity, such as one finds in 
the time of Charlemagne. Further study of the Middle Ages 
then begins with the dissolution of the Frankish Empire and 
the formation of new* states. 1 

II. — Mediaeval and Modern European History. 

This field covers a period of a thousand years, and the his- 
tory of at least four or five important nations; it is necessarily, 
therefore, a matter of considerable difficulty to determine the 
best method by which the subject may be handled. Whether 
the whole field be covered superficially, or only the main lines 
be treated, it is highly desirable that some unity should be 
discovered, if possible, or that there should be some central 
line with which events or movements can be correlated. To 
find an assured principle of unity is exceedingly difficult, per- 
haps impossible; and it is very likely that writers will con- 
tinue to disagree as to the best method of traversing this vast 
area. 

One way to get unity and continuity is to study general 
movements alone, without endeavoring to follow the life of any 

1 Such a survey of the beginnings of the Middle Ages must needs he quite hrief and 
should be confined to the primary features of the period — to the barbarian invasions, the 
rise of the Christian church and of Mohammedan civilization, the persistence of the 
Empire in the East, and the growth of Frankish power to its culmination under Charle- 
magne. This practice of combining ancient and mediaeval history has been followed in 
a number of schools and the results have been satisfactory. 



460 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

one nation; but while this method is possible for college classes 
it may not be found feasible for secondary schools, where 
pupils have greater difficulty in comprehending general tend- 
encies. Still, we think that certain essential characteristics 
of at least the mediaeval period may perhaps be studied. The 
period extending from Charlemagne to the Eevival of Learning 
has a "strongly marked character, almost a personality of its 
own 5 "and by a selection of proper facts some of the main 
characteristics may be brought home to the knowledge of the 
high-school pupils. The teacher or text writer who attempts 
this method must naturally proceed with great caution, getting 
general ideas before the students by a judicious use of concrete 
facts and illustrations, and not failing to give some of the more 
important events and dates that mark the period. He will 
probably find the most characteristic feature of the age in the 
unbroken dominance of the Eoman Church, and should there- 
fore bring out clearly the essential features of its organization 
and explain the methods by which it exercised control in all 
departments of mediaeval life. If this is done, as it can and 
should be done, with care and impartiality, the pupil will 
receive a valuable lesson in historical truthfulness and objec- 
tivity at the same time that he comes to appreciate one of the 
great moving forces of European history. 

This method of treating continental history can be carried 
throughout the Eeformation period by remembering that while 
that period marks the end of the Middle Ages it also forms the 
basis for modern European history. This epoch must there- 
fore be taught with both points of view in mind. The main 
aspects of the time must be brought broadly before the pupil, 
and he must be led to see that the sixteenth century is a 
century of transition; that the old order has been swept away; 
that religious, political, material, intellectual, and social life 
has been profoundly affected, not only by the teachings of 
Luther and Calvin, but by the development of the printing- 
press, the use of gunpowder, the voyages of Magellan and 
Drake, and the change in economic values. The wars of 
religion mark the last efforts to reestablish united Christendom ; 
and, although the treaty of Westphalia (1648) seems well within 
the sphere of modern history, it may not improperly be selected 
as the end of this era of transition. 

From the close of this period it will be found very difficult 
to treat only of movements of a general character affecting 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 461 

the life of Europe. There is now no great institution, like the 
Church, which forms the center of Christendom; the different 
nations no longer belong to a system, but act as independent 
sovereigns; the development of distinct national life is now of 
primary concern to the historical student. But even in mod- 
ern history the method of treating epochs of international 
importance can be used to some extent. In order that this 
may be done, it will be necessary, probably, so to connect 
movements or epochal characteristics with the history of par- 
ticular nations that the separate development of the European 
states may be discerned. For example, the period from 1648 
to 1715 can be treated as the age of Louis XIY; while the 
history of the seventeenth century monarchy, illustrated by 
the attitude and the administration of Louis, is brought to 
light, the history of western Europe may be studied in its 
relations with France. The period from 1715 to 1763 is the 
age of colonial expansion, of rivalry between France and Eng- 
land; and it can be studied from either England or France as 
a point of view. The age of Frederick the Great (1740-1786) 
brings before us not only the rise of Prussia and the signifi- 
cance of that great fact, but the theory of enlightened despo- 
tism, of which Frederick was an exponent, and which was 
exemplified by the work of Catherine of Eussia, Joseph II, 
and other enlightened monarch s and ministers. For the 
period of the French Eevolution and the Empire (1789-1815) 
France again may be taken as the center from which to con- 
sider the international relations of European states, the devel- 
opment of the new principles of nationality, the sovereignty of 
the people, and the liberty of the individual. From 1815 to 
1848 Metternich may be regarded as the central figure. The 
reactionary characteristics of this time will naturally be dwelt 
upon, but the growth of new principles may also be illustrated, 
as seen in the establishment of independence in Greece and 
Belgium and in the liberal monarchy of Louis Philippe. The 
system of ]\Ietternich broke down in 1848, and from that time 
to 1871 study is naturally directed to the work of Cavour and 
Bismarck, to the unification of Italy and Germany, and to 
topics that may be easily considered in connection with these 
events. In attempting to give the pupil some idea of modern 
European politics since the establishment of the German 
Empire, it may be found advisable to treat Bismarck as the 
central figure down to 1890, and the Emperor William II as 



462 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

the successor of Bismarck. In this connection, the extra- 
European ambitions and achievements of Germany since 1871 
will serve to bring* out the fact that the history of the great- 
European nations is now not only the history of Europe, but 
the history of Asia and Africa as well. 

In some such manner as this it may be possible to study the 
broad field of European history with special reference to move- 
ments or epochs. The outline is not given here as a proposal 
for a hard and fast system, but rather to illustrate the main 
principle for which we are contending, namely, that some prin- 
ciple of unity should be discovered which will allow definite 
concrete treatment, avoiding, on the one hand, philosophical 
generalization, and, on the other, tangled accounts of detailed 
events which are made meaningless by the absence of proper 
connotation. 

Another method of securing unity and continuity is to select 
the history of one nation, preferably that of France, as a cen- 
tral thread, and study the development of its life. It may be 
that an understanding of the chief transitions in the history 
of one nation for a thousand years is all that the second-year 
pupil should be asked to'acquire, but probably it will be quite 
possible for him to acquire more. The Germanic migrations, 
the gxowth of the church, the invasions of the Saracens, the. 
establishment of the Holy Eoman Empire, feudalism, the cru- 
sades, the Eenaissance, the rise of national monarchies, the 
religious wars, the French E evolution and the Napoleonic 
wars, the unification of Germany and Italy, the democratic 
movements of the present century — these and other important 
topics have immediate relation to French history, and may 
well be studied in connection with it. 

This method of treatment has been followed satisfactorily in 
some schools. Many teachers have used English history for 
the purpose with some success, and have thus given to their 
pupils no small knowledge of what went on upon the Conti- 
nent. England, however, does not serve this purpose so well 
as France; we speak of this use of English history simply to 
show the practicability of the plan. Of course, if any one 
nation is chosen, the student is apt to get au exalted idea of 
the part which that particular nation has played; and there it- 
danger of a lack of proportion. But consistency, simplicity, 
and unity are more essential than general comprehension; or, 
it might more truly be said, general comprehension and appre- 



THE STUDY OF, HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 463 

ciation of proportions are almost impossible for boys and girls, 
and if simplicity and compactness are wanting there is apt to 
be no grasp of fundamentals at all. If France be taken as a 
center, events can be studied in sequence, the primary histori- 
cal way of looking at things can be cultivated, and the concrete 
acts of men can be examined and discussed. 

If neither of the methods here suggested appeals to the 
teacher, he must seemingly do one of two things: he must 
endeavor to get a very general view of the field, give all the 
main facts and dates, and follow the histories of the nations in 
parallel lines, or he must omit large portions of the historical 
field altogether and content himself with the study of a few 
important epochs. By either of these modes of treatment any 
effort to unify is in large measure given up. The first way is 
not uncommonly followed, but it often results, as the com- 
mittee thinks, in cramming the memory with indigestible 
facts and in mental confusion; though an occasional effort to 
bind the parallel lines together by horizontal lines will help 
to give unity and wholeness to the structure, or, to change the 
figure, an occasional view of a cross section will have a like 
effect. The second method is adopted by some teachers, and 
they could with difficulty be convinced that it is not the best. 
They believe that by the intensive study, of two or three epochs 
the best educational results are obtained. The Reformation, 
the age of Louis XIV, the French Revolution, and the nine- 
teenth century might be selected as characteristic periods. 
We do not, however, urge this method upon the schools, or 
insist that it is the proper one. We know that it has been 
successfully used, and believe that under advantageous cir- 
cumstances it will be likely to prove satisfactory, although, one 
must regret the failure resulting from this system to give any- 
thing approaching a general view of European history. 

III. — English History. 

English history, coming in the third year of the school 
course, and completing the survey of European development, 
is exceedingly important. Significant as is the history of the 
English nation in itself, the study may be made doubly useful 
if the work is so conducted that it serves in some measure as 
a review of continental history and as a preparation for Ameri- 
can history. The pupils in our schools, as we have already 
suggested, can ill afford to lose such an introduction to the 



464 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

study of the history and institutions of the United States; 
for, without a knowledge of how the English people developed 
and English principles matured, they can have slight appre- 
ciation of what America means. Even the Eevolutiou, for 
example, if studied as an isolated phenomenon, is bereft of 
half its meaning, to say the least, because the movement that 
ended in the separation of the colonies from the mother coun- 
try and in the adoption of the Federal Constitution, began 
long before the colonies were founded, and the Declaration of 
Independence was the formal announcement of democratic 
ideas that had their taproot in English soil. 

We believe that considerable, if not the chief, attention 
should be paid to the gradual development of English politi- 
cal institutions. These words may sound forbidding, but it is 
to be hoped that the reader of this report will not imagine 
that we think of plunging the pupil into Stubbs or Hallam. 
We mean simply that the main features, the fundamental 
principles and practices of constitutional government, should 
be studied, and that the steps in its development should be 
marked. It is not impossible to know the leading features of 
the work of William I and its results, the principal reforms of 
Henry II, the chief developments of the thirteenth century, 
the actual meanings .of Tudor supremacy, the underlying 
causes, purposes, and results of the Puritan revolution, the 
work of Pym and Eliot, of Robert Walpole or of Earl Grey. 
One might almost as well object to mathematics in the high 
school because quaternions or the integral calculus are hard 
and abstruse, as to complain of the difficulty of the constitu- 
tional history of England because, when studied profoundly, 
it is, like every other subject, full of perplexities. The treat- 
ment must be simple, direct, and forcible, and its supreme 
object must be to show the long struggle for political and civil 
privileges, and the gradual growth of the cardinal forms and 
salient ideas of the English state. One can not forget, even 
in a high-school course, that England is the mother of modern 
constitutional government; that by the force of example she 
has become the lawgiver of the nations. 

The pupil should be led to see how the State grew in power, 
how the Government developed, and how it became more and 
more responsive to the popular will and watchful of individual 
interests. But he ought to see more than merely political 
progress; he can be made to see, at least to some small extent, 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 465 

how the life of men broadened as the years went by, and can 
note some of the many changes in habits of living and in 
industry. Such a reign as that of Elizabeth would yield but 
little of its meaning if the student should content himself 
with the hackneyed phrase of "Tudor absolutism" (but half 
true at the best), and did not see the social and industrial 
movements, the great human uprising, "the general awaken- 
ing of national life, the increase of wealth, of refinement, and 
leisure," in that age when the "sphere of human interest was 
widened as it had never been widened before * * * by 
the revelation of a new heaven and a new earth." The wise 
teacher will not neglect the collateral study of literature, but 
will endeavor to show that it partook of the character of its 
time, as the best literature is always the best exponent of the 
age which brings it forth. 

In the study of English institutions it is not wise to dwell 
at length upon conditions prior to the Norman period, and 
indeed even the ordinary political events before the time of 
Egbert should be passed over rapidly. To the secondary 
pupil the details of what Milton called the "battles of the 
kites and crows" are dreary and unprofitable; apocryphal 
martyrdoms, legends of doubtful authenticity, and scores of 
unpronounceable names are useless burdens to the healthful 
memory of a boy of sixteen, whose mind promptly refuses 
assimilation. But the origins of later institutions, so far as 
they appear in Anglo-Saxon times, are not uninteresting and 
may well be noticed. 

When institutions familiar to us in modern life are fairly 
established, the pupil's interest is naturally awakened and 
time is rightly devoted to their study. The jury, the offices 
of sheriff and coroner, and like matters, deserve attention; 
and possibly something may be done even with the develop- 
ment of the common law in early England. But, in all the 
work, effort should be made to understand institutions that 
have lived rather than those that have perished; such study 
can not fail to bring home a sense of our indebtedness to the 
past. It is unnecessary, however, to indicate here in detail 
how the successive steps in the development of English insti- 
tutions and of English liberties may be brought out; such a 
presentation would involve a longer treatment than can be 
given here; but it is not out of place to say that stress should 
be laid chiefly upon the important constitutional movements 
HIST 98 30 



466 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

and the establishment of principles which mark a stage of 
progress, and are preparations for institutions, principles, and 
ideas that are to follow. 

In teaching English constitutional history, it is the institu- 
tions of south Britain that demand chief attention; but in 
teaching the history of the nation as apart from that of the 
State, it is essential that the common practice of neglecting 
Welsh, Scottish, and Irish history be abandoned in American 
schools; otherwise no idea is gained of the composite nature 
of the nation which has built up the British Empire, and spread 
abroad the knowledge of English institutions and the use of 
the English language. Even in studying the early history, 
care should be taken to bring out the fact that there were 
such people as the Welsh, Scots, and Irish; and, although it 
is not advisable to consider in any detail the history of these 
nations even in later times, yet some of the more important 
events should be dwelt upon; the relationships with south 
Britain should be kept in mind ; and such knowledge of their 
development should be given that the final welding of all into 
a single British kingdom becomes intelligible. 

It is very desirable that the expansion and the imperial 
development of Britain should receive adecpiate notice. 
Schoolbooks rarely lay sufficient emphasis upon this phase of 
the subject; in them the real meaning of the American Be vo- 
lution is usually not disclosed; Dettingen, Fontenoy, and 
Minden sometimes obscure Louisburg, Quebec, and Plassey. 
Without Drake, Baleigh, Clive, and Gordon, English history 
of the last three centuries is not English history at all. The 
colonial system also, and the general colonial policy of the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries demand attention in 
American schools; and the foundation of British domiuion in 
India can not rightly be made subordinate to party struggles 
in Parliament or to ministerial successions. Finally, to trace 
the growth of the British Empire in the nineteenth century, 
to see how the colonists of Canada, Australia, IsTew Zealand, 
and South Africa have obtained and used the right of self- 
government, and how the East India Company's settlements 
have developed into an imperial dependency under the British 
Crown — these topics are more important thau any study of 
ordinary party politics within the old sea-girt realm of 
England. 

By paying attention to the continental relations of England 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 467 

it will be possible to review the more important movements of 
European history and to give the pupil new views of their 
meanings. Of course, if these side views of continental con- 
ditions are offered too frequently the class may become con- 
fused, and lose sight even of the well-worn paths of English 
constitutional progress. Judicious reference and comparison, 
however, will not be distracting, but will assist the pupils in 
appreciating the meaning of what was going on within the 
four seas. A study of English feudalism will give an oppor- 
tunity to review what has been learned of the continental 
characteristics of that institution. The crusades can not be 
studied as if Richard I were the only king who took the cross. 
Who can understand the quarrel between Henry I and Anselm 
if he has no knowledge of the contest between Gregory and 
Henry of Germany ? Can even the Norman conquest be known 
without some sense of who the Northmen were and what they 
had been doing? Does one get the force of the great liberal 
movements of the seventeenth century without some slight 
comparison between the Charleses of England and the Louises 
of France"? Although this comparative method may be over- 
done, we believe that careful and judicious comparisons and 
illustrations will prove illuminating, suggestive, and in all 
ways helpful. 

IV. — American History. 

If American history is studied, as the committee recom- 
mends, in the last year of the secondary school, it should be 
taken up as an advanced subject, with the purpose of getting 
a clear idea of the course of events in the building of the 
American Eepublic and the development of its political ideas. 
Its chief objects should be to lead the pupil to a knowledge of 
the fundamentals of the state and society of which he is a 
part, to an appreciation of his duties as a citizen, and to an 
intelligent, tolerant patriotism. 

It is not desirable that much time should be devoted to the 
colonial history. The period is especially interesting if viewed 
as a chapter in the expansion of England, a chapter in the 
story of the struggle between the nations of western Europe 
for colonies, commerce, and dominion. It must be viewed, too, 
as a time when the spirit of self-sufficiency and self-deter- 
mination was growing — a spirit which accounts for the Revo- 
lution and for the dominating vigor of the later democracy. 



468 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

Attention may be paid to the establishment of industrial con- 
ditions and of habits of industrial activity, as explaining 
political differences in subsequent times, especially as explain- 
ing the divergence of North and South after constitutional 
union had been formed. Slight notice should be taken of 
military campaigns in any portion of the study, though the 
importance of intercolonial wars can easily be underestimated, 
and the main facts of other wars, especially, of course, the 
Revolutionary and the Civil war, can not be neglected. 

In the study of American history it is especially desired 
that the development of the political organizations be clearly 
brought forth. Nothing should be allowed to obscure the lead- 
ing features of our constitutional system. The pupil must see 
the characteristics of American political life and know the 
forms and methods, as well as the principles of political activity. 
He must have knowledge of the ideals of American life, and 
must study tlie principles of American society as they have 
expressed themselves in institutions and embodied themselves 
in civic forms. 

Much has been said about the necessity of studying the social 
and industrial history of the United States, and some practical 
teachers have declared that chief stress should be laid upon 
social and economic features 1 of the past life of the people. 
Such a study is certainly very desirable ; the student should 
come to a realization of the nature and the problems of the in- 
dustrial world about him, and should see the gradual changes 
that have been wrought as the years have gone by. History 
should be made real to him through the study of the daily 
ordinary life of man, and he should be led to feel that only a 
very small portion of man's activities or strivings is expressed 
by legislatures, congresses, or cabinets; that, especially under 
a government such as ours, the industrial conditions, the bodily 
needs, the social desires, the moral longings of the people, 
determine ultimately, if not immediately, the character of the 
law and the nature of the government itself. We do not think, 
however, that economic or social facts should be emphasized 
at the expense of governmental or political facts. 

It seems wise to say that the greatest aim of education is to 
impress upon the learner a sense of duty and responsibility, 
and an acquaintance with his human obligations; and that a 

'There is a marked difference between studying economic history and studying eco- 
nomic features or conditions. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 469 

manifest function of the historical instruction in the school is 
to give to the pupil a sense of duty as a responsible member 
•of that organized society of which he is a part, and some 
appreciation of its principles and its fundamental character. 
In other words, while industrial and social phases of progress 
should by no means be slighted, it is an absolute necessity that 
a course in American history should aim to give a connected 
narrative of political events and to record the gradual upbuild- 
ing of institutions, the slow establishment of political ideals 
and practices. 

Fortunately, as we have already suggested, many of the 
most imj)ortant events in our social and industrial history are 
so intimately connected with the course of our political history 
that the two subjects seem not two but one. Changes in modes 
of industry or in social conditions, improvements in methods 
of labor, intellectual and moral movements, have manifested 
themselves in political action, have influenced party creeds, or 
in some other way affected the forms or the conduct of the 
body politic. In a democratic country any important change 
in the life of the people is of importance in political history, 
because the people are the state. Many of the economic and 
social changes, therefore, can best be studied as they show 
themselves in organized effort or are embodied in political 
institutions. If one looks at political activities or endeavors 
to understand constitutions, without knowledge of the lives 
and hopes of the people, the strivings of trade and commerce, 
the influence of inventions and discoveries, the effects of immi- 
gration, he knows but little of the whence or the how, and 
deals with symbols, not with things. 

While we believe, then, that the chief aim should be to give 
the pupil knowledge of the progress of political institutions, 
ideas, and tendencies, we believe also that he should know the 
economic phases of life; that whenever possible, attention 
should be directed not merely to economic and social condi- 
tions, but to economic and social developments; and that those 
economic, industrial, or social modifications should receive 
chief attention which have permanently altered social organ- 
ization, or have become embedded in institutions, ideas, or gov- 
ernmental forms. We should in our study endeavor to see the 
full importance, because we see the results, of the fact that 
Virginia grew tobacco and South Carolina rice, and that the 
New Euaianders were fishermen and went down to the sea in 



470 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

ships ; we should try to recognize the meanings of slavery and 
white servitude, of cotton and the sugar trade, of the steam- 
boat, the railroad, the telegraph, the rotary press, the sewing 
machine. We should see, if we can, how such things influ- 
enced human progress and had effect on the nature, organiza- 
tion, and destinies of the American people. 

Now, a careful study like this is not possible for students in 
their early years. In the grades below the secondary school 
use may well be made of mere descriptions of past times, of 
houses and apparel, of the snuffboxes, wigs, and silken hose 
of our great grandfathers; for such pictures help to awaken 
the imagination, to furnish it with food, to bring home the idea 
that men and their surroundings have changed, and to prepare 
the mind for the later growth of historical power and capaci- 
ties.' But though the pupil must know bygone conditions and 
must seek to get a vivid picture of the past, the ultimate aim 
of history is to disclose not what was, but what became. 
Totally unrelated facts are of antiquarian rather than of his- 
torical interest. In the secondary school, then, and especially 
in the later years of the course, attention must be paid to 
movements, and an effort must be made to cultivate the fac- 
ulty for drawing truthful generalizations, for seeing and com- 
prehending tendencies. 

We hope that from this statement no one will get the idea 
that we are waging war on economic history, or the study of 
what the Germans have happily called "culturgeschiehte." 
But we contend that, since there is so much to be done in a 
single year, there is no time for the study of such past indus- 
trial and social conditions — though they may be indeed inter- 
esting phenomena — as stand unrelated, isolated, and hence 
meaningless, and are perhaps without real historical value. 
Time must rather be given to the important, to conditions 
which were fruitful of results, to movements, changes, and 
impulses in industrial as well as in political society. No study 
of economic forms or social phases should hide from view the 

■We recognize fully the historical value of inany things that seem at first sight unim- 
portant. When, for example, we are told that the old Federalists wore wigs and the 
Republicans did not, we recognize a fact that marks a change and symbolises political 
creeds and party differences. Taine says that about the twentieth year of Elisabeth's 
reign the nobles gave up the shield and two-handed sword for the rapier, " a little, almost 
imperceptible fact," he remarks, " yet vast, for it is like the change which sixty years 
ago made us give up the sword at court, to leave our arms swinging about iu our black 
coats." 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 471 

political and social ideas for which our country stands, and 
which have been the developments of our history. 

We have entered upon this subject at some length in con- 
nection with a consideration of American history, because 
many of the statements seem important, and because much 
that is said, while peculiarly applicable to American history, 
is likewise true of other fields. Especially, in the study of 
English history should effort be made to connect economic and 
intellectual conditions with the progress of England, to look 
for changes in the succeeding centuries, and to see how politi- 
cal organization and social needs reacted one upon the other. 
And yet how often has Wat Tyler's insurrection been studied 
as a mere uprising of political malcontents endangering the 
safety or the bodily ease of young Richard II ! How often has 
the devastation of the North been studied as if it had a bear- 
ing only on the fortunes of the Norman dynasty! How often 
have inventions and discoveries been stated as merely isolated 
phenomena — such changes, for example, as that marked by the 
use of pit-coal in the making of iron as if they were of only 
scientific interest! 

V.— Civil Government. 

Much time will be saved and better results obtained if his- 
tory and civil government be studied in large measure together, 
as one subject rather than as two distinct subjects. We are 
sure that, in the light of what has been said in the earlier por- 
tions of this report about the desirability of school pupils' 
knowing their political surroundings and duties, no one will 
suppose that in what we here recommend we underestimate 
the value of civil government or wish to lessen the effective- 
ness of the study. What we desire to emphasize is the fact 
that the two subjects are in some respects one, and that there 
is a distinct loss of energy in studying a small book on Ameri- 
can history and afterwards a small book on civil government, 
or vice versa, when by combining the two a substantial course 
may be given. 

In any complete and thorough secondary course in these sub- 
jects there must be, probably, a separate study of civil govern- 
ment, in which may be discussed such topics as municipal 
government, State institutions, the nature and origin of civil 
society, some fundamental notions of law and justice, and like 



472 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

matters ; and it may even be necessary, if the teacher desires 
to give a complete course and can command the time, to sup- 
plement work in American history with a formal study of the 
Constitution and the workings of the national government. 
But we repeat that a great deal of what is commonly called civil 
government can best be studied as a part of history. To know 
the present form of our institutions well one should see whence 
they came and how they developed; but to show origins, devel- 
opments, changes, is the task of history, and in the proper 
study of history one sees just these movements and knows 
their results. 

It would, of course, be foolish to say that the secondary 
pupil can trace the steps in the development of all our institu- 
tions, laws, political theories, and practices; but some of them 
he can trace, and he should be enabled to do so in his course 
in American history. How it came about that we have a fed- 
eral system of government rather than a centralized state; 
what were the colonial beginnings of our systems of local gov- 
ernment; how the Union itself grew into being; why the Con- 
stitution provided against general warrants; why the first ten 
amendments were adopted; why the American people objected 
to bills of attainder and declared against them in their funda- 
mental law — these, and a score of other questions, naturally 
arise in the study of history, and an answer to them gives 
meaning to oar Constitution. Moreover, the most funda- 
mental ideas in the political structure of the United States 
may best be seen in a study of the problems of history. The 
nature of the Constitution as an instrument of government, 
the relation of the central authority to the States, the theory 
of State sovereignty or that of national unity, the rise of par- 
ties and the growth of party machinery — these subjects are 
best understood when seen in their historical settings. 

But in addition to this, many, if not all, of the provisions 
of the Constitution mtiy be seen in the study of history, not 
as mere descriptions written on a piece of parchment, but as 
they are embodied in working institutions. The best way to 
understand institutions is to see them in action; the best way 
to understand forms is to see them used. By studying civil 
government in connection with history, the pupil studies the 
concrete and the actual. The process of impeachment, the 
appointing power of the President, the make-up of the Cabinet, 
the power of the Speaker, the organization of the Territories, 



THE STUDY OP HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 473 

the adoption and purpose of the amendments, the methods of 
annexing- territory, the distribution of the powers of govern- 
ment and their working relations, indeed, all the important 
parts of the Constitution that have been translated into exist- 
ing, acting institutions, may be studied as they have acted. 
If one does not pay attention to such subjects as these in the 
study of history, what is left but wars and rumors of wars, 
partisan contentions, and meaningless details'? 

We do not advise that text-books on civil government be 
discarded, even when there is no opportunity to give a separate 
course in the subject. On the contrary, such a book should 
always be ready for use, in order that the teacher may prop- 
erly illustrate the past by reference to the present. If the 
pupils can make use of good books on the Constitution and 
laws, so much the better. What we desire to recommend is 
simply this, that in any school where there is no time for 
sound, substantial courses in both civil government and his- 
tory, the history be taught in such a way that the pupil will 
gain a knowledge of the essentials of the political system 
which is the product of that history; and that, where there is 
time for separate courses, they be taught, not as isolated, but 
as interrelated and interdependent subjects. Bishop Stubbs in 
a memorable sentence has said, "For the roots of the present 
lie deep in the past, and nothing in the past is dead to the 
man who would learn how the present comes to be what it is." 
Though we must not distort the past in an effort to give mean- 
ing to the present, yet we can fully understand the present 
only by a study of the past; and the past, ou the other hand, 
is appreciated only by those who know the present. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 

In the early part of this report, attention is called to the 
fact that there seems to be some agreement among teachers 
of history concerning methods of teaching; and we have 
attributed this agreement in some measure to the recommen- 
dation of the Madison Conference, whose report has been 
widely read and used throughout the country. Doubtless 
there are many other reasons for the improvement of the last 
ten years, chief among which is the increased supply of well- 
trained teachers. There has been also a new recognition of 
the purpose of history teaching, a growing realization on the 
part of teachers of why they teach the subject and what they 



474 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

hope to accomplish. If one lias distinctly in his mind the end 
that he seeks to gain, he will be likely to discover suitable 
means and methods of teaching. More important, therefore, 
than method, is object; means are valueless to one who has 
no end to be attained. The teacher who is seeking means and 
methods should first inquire whether he is sure that he knows 
what he wishes to accomplish. 

It is unnecessary for us to go into this subject at very great 
length. If teachers have been stimulated by the report of the 
Madison conference, and have learned to obtain from it what 
is adapted to their wants, and to disregard what seems to them 
to be unsuited to their needs, they can continue to follow it. 
In spite of the six years of experience that have elapsed since 
that report was published, this committee will "perhaps be no 
wiser in its recommendations and suggestions; and if there is 
now a manifest drift toward what we may be suffered to call 
"advanced" methods, the best plan may be to leave well 
enough alone, with the firm assurance that the best methods 
will be widely used only when there is a fall realization of the 
purposes and the nature of the study. 

While discussing the value of historical work, we have nec- 
essarily considered the aims and objects of instruction. The 
chief purpose is not to fill the boy's head with a mass of mate- 
rial which he may perchance put forth again when a college 
examiner demands its production. Without underestimating 
the value of historical knowledge, and deprecating nothing 
more than a readiness to argue and contend about the mean- 
ing of facts that have not been established, we contend that 
the accumulation of facts is not the sole, or perhaps not the 
leading, purpose of study. 1 

No other subject in the high-school curriculum, except his- 
tory, is stigmatized as an information study simply, rather 
than an educational study. Not even arithmetic — beyond dec- 
imals and percentage — is looked upon as valuable for the stub- 
ble that it stores away in the head, where the brain has not 
been called into activity or taught to use the material which 

1 History, unlike some other subjects in the curriculum, is a subject to be studied lor 
its own sake and not merely for disciplinary purposes. The information obtained by the 
study is a continuous source of pleasure and profit. Moreover, no subject can have the 
best pedagogical results if its acknowledged purpose is not to acquire knowledge but to 
get training. The mind naturally seizes and uses information which is at once interest- 
ing and useful; above all, it grasps that which is interesting because it is useful. By 
what is said in the text, we wish to emphasize the disciplinary value of the study, but 
not to belittle its value for information and culture. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 475 

it is asked to retain. But for some unaccountable reason it 
has been held that boys and girls must not think about his- 
torical material, or be taught to reason, or be led to approach 
events with the historical spirit. The scientific spirit can be 
awakened and methods of scientific thinking cultivated ; power 
in handling language and an ability for grasping grammatical 
distinctions can be developed; even the literary sense can be 
fostered and promoted; but the historical sense, the begin- 
nings of historical thinking, it is sometimes gravely said, can 
not be expected; all that one can do is to give information, in 
the hope that in some distant day pleasant and helpful reac- 
tions will take place within the brain. Fortunately, the num- 
ber of persons who argue in this way has decreased and is 
decreasing, and we may well leave those that remain to the 
intelligent teachers of history throughout the land, who are 
awake to the possibilities of their subject and who see the boys 
and girls growing in power and efficiency under their hands. 1 

Pupils who can study physics and geometry, or read Cicero's 
orations, must be presumed to have powers of logic and capac- 
ity to follow argument. Teachers of English put into their 
pupils' hands such masterpieces as Burke's "Speech on Con- 
ciliation with America" and Webster's "Keply to Hayne." It 
is certainly unwise to use such material for English work if it 
is impossible for boys and girls of 16 to understand what these 
statesmen were talking about, or to see the force of their argu- 
ments; for, if language is conceded to be a vehicle of ideas, it 
can not be studied as a thing apart, without reference to its 
content. And if Burke and Cicero and Patrick Henry and 
Daniel Webster can be understood in language work, it seems 
reasonable to hold that they can be understood in history work, 
and hence that pupils may fairly be asked to think of what 
they see and read. 

It is not our purpose to give minute and particular directions 
concerning methods of historical instruction. A short list of 
books from which teachers may obtain helpful suggestions for 
class-room work will be found in Appendix VII to this report. 
In drafting the recommendations which follow here, we have 

1 We may justly contend that an effort to store facts in pupils' heads often defeats its 
own ends. College professors who have looked over entrance examination papers for 
many years, as most members of this committee have done, are struck by the marvelous 
accumulation of misinformation which has been acquired and held with calm belief and 
placid assurance. We may seriously inquire whether instruction in method of looking 
at facts and training in thinking about them would not leave a greater residuum of 
actual information. 



476 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

had in mind only certain general methods which we think spe- 
cially useful for bringing out the educational value of the study. 

I. We believe that in most cases the teacher should use a 
text-book. If the book is prepared by a practical teacher and 
a scholar, it is probably the product of much toil, which has 
been devoted to a consideration of proportion and order as 
well as to accuracy, and it is therefore likely to unfold the sub- 
ject more systematically than a teacher can possibly do unless 
he has wide training, long experience, and, in addition, daily 
opportunity carefully to examine the field and to search out 
the nature of the problems that he is called upon to discuss. 
Without the use of a text it is difficult to hold the pupils to a 
definite line of work; there is danger of incoherence and con- 
fusion. While, therefore, we strongly advise the use of mate- 
rial outside of the text, we feel that the use of the topical 
method alone will in the great majority of instances result in 
the pupils' having unconnected information. They will lose 
sighb of the main current; and it is the current and not the 
eddies which they should watch. 

In some classes, especially in the more advanced grades, it 
may be possible to use more than one text-book. " By prepar- 
ing in different books or by using more than one book on a 
lesson, pupils will acquire the habit of comparison, and the no 
less important habit of doubting whether any one book covers 
the ground." 1 In an attempt to discover the truth they may 
be led to study more widely for themselves, and will surely 
find that there are sources of information outside of the printed 
page. The use of more than one text will, however, often pre- 
sent many practical difficulties to the teacher; and this will 
surely be the case unless he has the time and opportunity to 
master all the texts himself and to examine outside material 
with care. In most schools there is a decided advantage in 
having one line along which the class may move. Often it 
may prove helpful to use supplementary texts, in order to am- 
plify and modify the regular class book; this may be done 
by the teacher when comparison by the class might prove 
distracting. 2 

'Report of the Committee [of Ten] (Washington, 1893), 189. 

'Alter this portion of the report dealing with methods was read at the meeting of tho 
American Historical Association, in 1898, one teacher expressed theopiuiou that the report 
did not sufficiently emphasize the oral recitations; another, that we did not sufficiently 
emphasize written work; another, that wo did not sufficiently emphasize tho value of 
more than one text-hook. We do not wish to underestimate any means which any teacher 
finds suited to his needs and productive of good results. Teachers must of course use 
their own discretion as to how far various methods may be followed; hut we think that 
all of the ideas and plans here suggested will prove helpful. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 477 

II. Material outside of the text-book should be used in all 
branches of historical study and in every year of the secondary 
course. Life and interest may in this way be given to the 
work; pupils may be introduced to good literature and be 
taught to handle books. This collateral material maybe used 
in various ways, and, of course, much more should be expected 
of the later classes than of the earlier; indeed, there should 
be a consistent purpose to develop gradually and systematic- 
ally this power of using books. Often, especially in the earlier 
years, the teacher will read to the class passages from enter- 
taining histories. Younger pupils without previous training 
should not be expected to find the books that treat of certain 
topics, or to know how to find the portions desired. Let the 
pupil learn how to understand and use pages before he uses 
books; and let him learn how to use one or two books before 
he is set to rummaging in a library. For example, a class in 
the first year of the secondary school may be asked to tell 
what is said of Marathon in Botsford's History of Greece, page 
121. A twelfth-grade class, properly trained, may be asked 
to compare Lecky's account of the Stamp Act with Bancroft's, 
or to find out what they can in the books of the library con- 
cerning the defects of the Articles of Confederation. 

III. Something in the way of written work should be done 
in every year of the secondary school. It is unnecessary to 
caution teachers against requiring the sort of work in the early 
years that may reasonably be expected in the later part of the 
course. Younger pupils, who have had little or no training in 
doing written work of this character, might be required simply 
to condense and put into their own language a few pages of 
Grote or Mommsen, or to write out in simple form some 
abstract of Thucydides's account of the fate of the Sicilian 
expedition, or of Herodotus's description of the battle of Ther- 
mopylae, or to do similar tasks. In the later years more diffi- 
cult tasks may be assigned, demanding the use of several 
books and the weaving together of various narratives or opin- 
ions. It may be said by some persons that such work as this 
is for the English teacher, not for the history teacher; but it 
can hardly be asserted that skill in the use of historical books, 
practice in acquiring historical information, and the ability to 
put forth in one's own language what has been read, are not 
objects of historical training. 

IV. It may at times prove helpful to have written recitations 
or tests. Teachers have often found that this method secures 



478 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

accuracy and defmiteness of statement. Some pupils who 
have difficulty in organizing and arranging the information 
which they possess, and who consequently are not so success- 
ful as others in oral recitations, often succeed admirably in 
written exercises, and by their success are stimulated and en- 
couraged to do thoughtful and systematic work. 

Yo Many teachers Lave been aided in their work by requir- 
ing the class to keep notebooks, and the committee favors the 
adoption of this system, which has proved so serviceable in 
the study of the sciences. These books may contain analyses 
of the text, notes on outside matter presented in class, a list 
of books with which the pupil has himself become acquainted, 
and perhaps also some condensations of his reading. An 
analytical arrangement of the more iurportant topics that are 
discussed in the course of the study may also be placed in the 
notebook. This plan will help the student to see the different 
lines of development and change. For example, under the 
head of "Slavery," short statements may be inserted of the 
facts that have been learned from the text. By so doing, 
the pupil will have at the end of his work a condensed narra- 
tive of the introduction, growth, and effect of slavery, and 
will be led to see the continuity of the slavery question as he 
would probably be unable to see it by any other means. 

VI. Fortunately it is unnecessary in these latter days to 
call the teacher's attention to the use of maps, and to the idea 
that geography and history are inextricably interwoven. Most 
text-books now have a number of maps, all of which, however, 
are by no means faultless. Good wall-maps may be obtained 
at reasonable prices, and every school should have at least one 
good historical atlas. The class should use physical maps, as 
well as those showing political and national divisions, for 
often the simplest and most evident facts with which the pupil 
is well acquainted need to be forced sharply upon his atten- 
tion in connection with history. The Nile, the Euphrates, the 
Tiber, the Khine, the Thames, the Mississippi, the Alps, the 
Pyrenees, the Alleghanies — their very names call up to the 
mind of the historical scholar troops of facts and forces 
affecting the progress of the race and molding the destinies of 
nations. The pupils should not lose sight of the physical 
causes that have acted in history any more than they should 
ignore the human causes; and they must remember that, 
although history deals with the succession of events, there is 
always a place relation as well as a time relation. As new 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 479 

meaning is given to geography when physical conditions are 
seen in relation with human life, so reality is added to histori- 
cal occurrences and new interest is awakened in historical 
facts by the study of the theater within which men acted and 
notable events took place. "Groupings of historical figures 
and scenes around geographical centers make these centers 
instinct with life and motion, while the centers themselves, 
binding the figures and scenes together, give them a new per- 
manence and solidity." 1 The careful study of physical geog- 
raphy and of historical geography is of value, therefore, not 
only in bringing out the nature or the true import of facts, 
but in helping the pupils to retain information because they 
see natural causes and relations, and because events are thus 
made to appear definite and actual. 

If these methods are to be followed — as they must be if 
history is to be a study of high educational value — books for 
reference and reading are as necessary as is apparatus for effi- 
cient work in physics or chemistry. Not many years ago all 
subjects except "natural philosophy" were taught without the 
help of any material save a textbook for each pupil, and per- 
haps a few dusty cyclopedias often deftly concealed in a closet 
behind the teacher's desk. Great changes have been made; 
nearly all schools now have some books, but even at the pres- 
ent time it is easier to get five thousand dollars for physical 
and chemical laboratories than five hundred dollars for refer- 
ence books; and even when libraries have been provided, their 
material is sometimes not wisely chosen, and they are often 
allowed to fall behind by a failure to purchase new and useful 
literature as it comes out. 

The library should be the center and soul of all study in 
history and literature; no vital work can be carried on without 
books to which pupils may have ready and constant access. 
Without these opportunities historical work is likely to be 
arid, if not unprofitable; there can not be collateral reading, 
or written work of the most valuable sort, or study of the 
sources, or knowledge of illustrative material. Even a small 
expenditure of money may change the dull routine of historical 
study into a voyage of pleasurable discovery, awakening the 
interest, the enthusiasm, and the whole mental power of the 
pupils. No school is so poor that something can not be done 
in the way of collecting material. 

1 Hinsdale, How to Study and Teach History, 99. 



480 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

Tlie first necessity of a school library is that it be accessible. 
It should be in the school building, opeu during the whole of 
school hours and as much longer as possible. It should be 
furnished with working tables and provided with good light, 
and so arranged that it serves not as something helpful out- 
side the school, but as the source and center of inspiration to 
which the class-room work is contributory. The books should 
be freely used; for a library is no longer considered a place for 
the preservation and concealment of books, but a center from 
which they may be put into circulation and where the best 
facilities are offered for acquiring information. The question 
as to whether the books should be left in open shelves or 
handed out by an attendant must be decided, of course, by the 
school authorities, in light of all the circumstances,- but it 
must be remembered that the opportunity to touch and 
handle the volumes, to glance at their pages, to discover the 
subjects of which they treat— to look, as it were, into their 
faces — is of great value, and that more can be learned by a 
few minutes of familiar intercourse with a book in the hand 
than by many inquiries of an attendant or by anxious seareh- 
ings in a catalogue. The fewer the barriers and obstacles in 
the way the better will be the results, and the more will the 
pupil be tempted to refer to the authorities and to read the 
great masters in history and literature — an acquaintance with 
whose words, thoughts, and sentiments constitutes in itself 
no small part of education. 

In employing the library for historical purposes, care shoidd 
be taken to teach the pupils how to use intelligently tables of 
contents and indexes, and also how to turn to their account 
the library catalogues and the indexes to general and periodical 
literature. The teacher will remember that the habit of refer- 
ring to authorities to settle doubtful points or to discover 
additional evidence is a most important part, not only of his- 
torical training but of the outfit of an educated person, and 
that wide reading should bring breadth of view and also a 
broadening and deepening of the judgment. 

The well-equipped library should contain (1) good historical 
atlases and atlases of modern geography; (2) one or two his- 
torical handbooks or dictionaries of dates; (3) an ample supply 
of secondary histories, such as those of Holm, Mommsen, 
Lecky, Parkman; with these may be classed, as especially 
useful, good, interesting biographies, such as Dodge's Alexan- 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 481 

der the Great, Stanhope's Pitt; (4) there should certainly be 
some collections of sources, many of which are now accessible; 
and some of the recent leaflets and collections of extracts of 
primary and secondary material will be found of service; (5) a 
good encyclopedia and one or two annual compendiums, such 
as the various political almanacs. 

SOURCES. 

The use of sources in secondary work is now a matter of so 
much importance that it seems to demand special and distinct 
treatment. We believe in the proper use of sources for proper 
pupils, with proper guaranties that there shall also be secured 
a clear outline view of the whole subject studied; but we find 
ourselves unable to approve a method of teaching, sometimes 
called the "source method," in which pupils have in their 
hands little more than a series of extracts, for the most part 
brief, and not very closely related. Tbe difficulty with this 
system is, that while it suggests the basis- of original record 
upon which all history rests, on the other hand it expects val- 
uable generalizations from insufficient bases. Within the 
covers of one book it is impossible to bring together one 
hundredth part of the material which any careful historical 
writer would examine for himself before coming to a conclu- 
sion; and it is not to be expected that inexperienced and 
immature minds can form correct notions without some sys- 
tematic survey of the field. Indeed, the attempts to teach his- 
tory wholly from the sources ignore the fact that the actual 
knowledge of the facts of history in the minds of the most 
highly trained teachers of history comes largely from second- 
ary books; it is only in limited fields where a large mass of 
material can be examined and sifted, that historians and 
teachers can safely rely for their information entirely on 
sources, and even there they find it useful to refer to the sec- 
ondary work of other writers for new points of view. 

The first essential, then, for any practical use of sources by 
pupils is that their work shall be done in connection with a 
good text-book, in which the sequence and relation of events 
can be made clear. The aim of historical study in the sec- 
ondary school, let it be repeated, is the training of pupils, not 
so much in the art of historical investigation as in that of 
thinking historically. Pupils should be led to grasp facts and 
see them in relations, for one who has been taught to establish 
hist 98 31 



482 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

certain facts with unerring accuracy may be still unable to 
understand the historical significance of those facts. 

In the second place, we disclaim any confidence in "investi- 
gation" by pupils, if by investigation is meant a mental process 
of the same order as that of the practiced historian and the 
special student of a limited field, or of the teacher preparing 
material for his classes. In our judgment sources are not 
intended to be either the sole or the principal materials for 
school study. There is, indeed, a close analogy between the 
proposed processes of historical study and those of the study 
of natural science. In physics, for example, it has been thought 
expedient to require a well-ordered text-book in connection with 
a series of experiments ; yet physics can not be efficiently taught 
unless the pupil has some contact with materials, not because 
they form the only foundation of his knowledge, but because 
he learns to look for himself, and to understand that the knowl- 
edge which he receives at second-hand must be based upon 
patient investigation by somebody else. 

By the study of properly selected materials the pupil real- 
izes that historical characters were living persons, and he 
learns to distinguish between them and the x and y of algebra 
or the formulas of physics. When one reads the loving let- 
ter written from before Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois 
some eight hundred years ago, 1 in which he charges his wife 
to do right and to remember her duty to her children and her 
vassals, one realizes that the Crusaders were real men, imbued 
with many of the purposes, hopes, and sentiments with which 
men of the present day are moved and influenced. 

The use of sources which we advocate is, therefore, a limited 
contact with a limited body of materials, an examination of 
which may show the child the nature of the historical process, 
and at the same time may make the people and events of bygone 
times more real to him. We believe that some acquaintance 
with sources vitalizes the subject, and thus makes it easier for 
the teacher and more stimulating for the pupil. But all sources 
are not of equal value for this purpose; some of those which* 
are very important for more mature students are too dry and 
unattractive to be useful for younger persons. John Adams's 
"Discourses of Davila" is a source, though thought exceed- 
ingly dull even in his generation. Abigail Adams's letters to 

' Translated in Letters of the Crusaders (University of Pennsylvania Translations and 
Reprints). I, 4. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 483 

her husband, complaining of the fall of Continental currency, 
are equally valuable as sources, and much more interesting. 

Since discrimination in the selection of sources is of so 
much importance, the first criterion is that authorities be 
chosen whose authenticity is beyond dispute. It is not worth 
while to introduce children to the controversies over the voy- 
ages of John and Sebastian Cabot; or to the arguments for and 
against the truthfulness of John Smith's account of his rescue 
by Pocahontas ; or to the authorship of the letters found in the 
saddlebags of Charles I. There is no difficulty in obtaining 
an abundance of suggestive sources about the value of which 
historians will agree and around which no interminable con- 
troversy is waging. Pains should also be taken to recommend 
the sources that may reasonably be brought within the knowl- 
edge of pupils; it is of no use to refer to rarities or to texts 
long out of print. 

In the next place, few documents, in the usual significance 
of that term, are very useful in the schoolroom. A capitulary 
of Charlemagne, Magna Charta, a colonial charter, or the Con- 
stitution of the United States may with careful explanation be 
made clear, but it is difficult to make them attractive. The 
growth of a nation, the enlargement of its political ideas, may 
be measurable by young intellects, but not the registration of 
that growth in great political documents. And yet even docu- 
ments may be occasionally used. There seems to be no good 
reason for merely reading about the Declaration of Independ- 
ence without seeing the printed instrument itself, or talking 
about the Ordinance of 1877 or the Proclamation of Emancipa- 
tion without knowledge of the texts. 

There is, however, a large body of material of another kind 
which is as trustworthy as constitutional documents and is 
much more attractive. Such are books of travel, which from 
Herodotus clown to James Bryce have been one of the most 
entertaining and suggestive sources on the social and intellec- 
tual phenomena of history. Of equal interest, and perhaps of 
greater value, are the actual journals and letters of persons 
contemporary with the events which they describe. Such are 
Cicero's Epistles, Luther's Letters, Pepys's Diary, Bradford's 
History, and the more intimate writings of statesmen like 
Henry Till of England and Henry IV of France, Frederick 
the Great, Franklin, Washington, and Gladstone. These are 
unfailing sources of historical information, and they give in 



484 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

addition a personal and human interest to the subjects which 
they illustrate. 

In dealing with young minds which are rapidly opening, it 
is of special importance to choose books or extracts which 
have a literary value. The annals of the race are founded on 
firsthand accounts of historical events, many of which are 
written in such a fashion as to be worth reading aside from 
their historical value. Such are, for example, Einhard's Life 
of Charlemagne; the naive accounts of the foundation of the 
Swiss Republic in 1292; the journals of the early voyagers to 
the Western world; the table talk of Bismarck; the farewell 
letters of John Brown, and the memoranda of Lincoln's few 
brief speeches. Such material used in schools gives part of 
the training and enjoyment to be had from good literature, 
and at the same time furnishes illustrations that make the 
text-book of history sparkle with human life. 

In connection with topical work, the pupils may with special 
advantage make use of the sources. To the child such work 
is as fresh as though it had never been undertaken by any 
other mind. In comparing the statements of various sources 
and arriving at a conclusion from taking them together, the 
pupil gets a valuable training of judgment. He must not 
suppose that he is making a history, or that his results are 
comparable with those of the trained historian; but he may 
have an intellectual enjoyment of the same kind as that of the 
historical writer. The committee is fully aware of the diffi- 
culty of carrying on such methods as are here suggested ; they 
require advantageous circumstances and material which is 
easily handled and with which the teacher has decided famil- 
iarity. As has been pointed out above, written work must not 
be the only or even the principal employment of the pupil, but 
in the preparation of written topics much may be gained by 
dealing with sources, if a sufficient variety is available. 
Wherever written work is required, therefore, it is desirable to 
have some sources, to be used not merely for help in writing, 
but for reference. In this way the pupil may get an idea of the 
difficulties of ascertaining historical truth and of the necessity 
for impartiality and accuracy. 

Besides the sources which have come down to us in written 
form and are reproduced upon the printed page, there is 
another important class of historical materials which is of 
great assistance in giving reality to the past — namely, actual 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 485 

concrete remains, such as exist in the form of old buildings, 
monuments, and the contents of museums. Many schools 
have direct access to interesting survivals of this sort, while 
the various processes of pictorial reproduction have placed 
abundant stores of such material within reach of every teacher. 
The excellent illustrations of many recent text-books may be 
supplemented by special albums, such as are used in French 
and German schools, and by the school's own collections of 
engravings and photographs cut from magazines or procured 
from dealers. 1 Some schools have also provided sets of lantern 
slides. Of course, in order to entitle such illustrations to serious 
use and to the rank of historical sources, they must be real 
pictures — actual reproductions of buildings, statues, contem- 
porary portraits, views of places, etc. — and not inventions of 
modern artists. It is easy to make too much of illustrations 
and thus reduce history to a series of dissolving views, but 
many excellent teachers have found the judicious use of pic- 
tures helpful in the extreme, not merely in arousing interest 
in the picturesque aspects of the subject, but in cultivating 
the historical imagination and in giving definiteness and vivid- 
ness to the pupil's general ideas of the past. An appeal to 
the eye is of great assistance in bringing out the charac- 
teristic differences between past and present, and thus in 
checking that tendency to project the present into the past 
which is one of the most serious obstacles to sound views of 
history. The chief danger in the use of pictorial material lies 
in giving too much of it, instead of dwelling at length on a few 
carefully chosen examples. 

To sum up this part of the subject, the committee looks upon 
sources as adjuncts to good text-book work, as something which 
may be used for a part of the collateral reading and may also 
form the basis of some of the written work. Such use of ma- 
terial, with proper discrimination in choosing the sources, will 
add to the pleasure of the pupil, and will by sharpness of out- 
line fix in his mind events and personalities that will slip away 
if he uses the text-books alone. 

1 Selections from the Perry prints, and the cheap series of photographic reproductions 
issued by various American houses, are always available at a very moderate price, and 
have found a place in many schools. Good types of inexpensive foreign albums are 
Seeman'sKunsthistorische Bilderbogen and the Albums Historiques of Parmentier (Paris, 
Hachette). Holzel in Vienna publishes Laugl's Bilder zur Geschichte, a set of sixty-two 
wall pictures of the great structures of all ages. 



486 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

INTENSIVE STUDY. 

That we have not dwelt at any length upon the desirability 
of devoting time to what is. termed by the Madison Conference 
" intensive study " is because we do not see how in many schools 
sufficient time can be given to such work, and not because we 
advise against the adoption of that plan of work if there is 
time and opportunity in the school course. Indeed, we believe 
that the careful examination of a very limited period is highly 
beneficial. By iutensive study we do not mean original work 
in the sense in which the word "original" is used in advanced 
college classes ; we mean simply the careful and somewhat pro- 
longed study of a short period. The shorter the period and 
the longer the time devoted to it the more intensive the study 
will be. Perhaps in the courses in English and American his- 
tory time may be found to study one or two periods with special 
care and attention, so that the pupil may have exceptional op- 
portunities to read the best secondary authorities, and even to 
examine primary material. For example, in English history 
it may prove possible to give two or three weeks instead of two 
or three days to a study of the important events and meanings 
of the Commonwealth, or to the ideas and progress of the whole 
Puritan movement. In American history it may be wise to 
study for a considerable time such subjects as the causes of the 
Revolution, or the Confederation and the formation of the Con- 
stitution, or the chief events of the decade from 1850 to 1860. 
When this plan of selecting a period or a topic for intensive 
examination is possible, the pupil can gain great advantage by 
the opportunity of delving deeper into the subject than is 
possible when all parts of the work are studied with equal 
thoroughness or superficiality; they can read more in the 
secondary material, can get a peep at the sources, and thus 
come to a fuller appreciation of what history is and how it is 
written. Only when good working facilities are at hand, how- 
ever, and the teacher, knowing the material, has time to guide 
his pupils and give them constant aid and attention, will this 
plan prove very helpful. 

THE NEED OF TRAINED TEACHERS. 

If history is to take and hold its proper place in the school 
curriculum, it must be in the hands of teachers who are 
thoroughly equipped for the task of bringing out its educa- 
tional value. It is still not very unusual to find that history 



THE STUDY OF HISTOEY IN SCHOOLS. 487 

is taught, if such a word, is appropriate, by those who have 
made no preparation, and that classes are sometimes man- 
aged — we hesitate to say instructed — by persons who do not 
profess either to be prepared or to take interest in the subject. 
In one good school, for example, history a short time ago was 
turned over to the professor of athletics, not because he knew 
history, but apparently in order to fill up his time. In another 
school a teacher was seen at work who evidently did not have 
the first qualifications for the task; when the examiner in- 
quired why this teacher was asked to teach history when she 
knew no history, the answer was that she did not know any- 
thing else. As long as other subjects in the course are given 
to specialists, while history is distributed here and there to 
fill up interstices, there can be no great hope for its advance- 
ment. Fortunately, however, this condition of things is dis- 
appearing as history gradually finds its way to a place beside 
such subjects as Latin and mathematics, which claim a pre- 
scriptive right to first consideration. 

Doubtless to teach history properly is a difficult task. It 
requires not only wide information and accurate knowledge, 
but a capacity to awaken enthusiasm and to bring out the 
inner meanings of a great subject. Accuracy and definiteness 
must be inculcated in the pupil, and he must be led to think 
carefully and soberly; but he must also be tempted to range 
beyond the limits of the text and to give rein to his imagina- 
tion. Pupils often complain that, while in other studies a 
lesson can be thoroughly mastered, in history every topic seems 
exhaustless. Teachers are constantly confronted with just 
this difficulty. So many problems arise and demand atten- 
tion ; so difficult is it to hold the pupil to definite facts, and 
yet help him to see that he is studying a scene in the great 
drama of human life which has its perpetual exits and en- 
trances; so hard a task is it to stimulate the imagination while 
one is seeking to cultivate the reason and the judgment, that 
the highest teaching power is necessary to complete success. 

The first requisite for good teaching is knowledge. The 
teacher's duty is not simply to see that the pupils have 
learned a given amount, or that they understand the lesson, 
as one uses the word "understand" when speaking of a 
demonstration in geometry or an experiment in physics. His 
task is to bring out the real meaning and import of what is 
learned by adding illustrations, showing causes, and suggest- 
ing results, to select the important and to pass over the unim- 



488 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

portant, to emphasize essentials, and to enlarge upon signifi- 
cant facts and ideas. A person with a meager information 
can not have a wide outlook; he can not see the relative 
importance of things unless he actually knows them in their 
relations. 

But knowledge of facts alone is not enough. In historical 
work pupils and teacher are constantly engaged in using 
books. These books the teacher must know; he must know 
the periods which they cover, their methods of treatment, 
their trustworthiness, their attractiveness, their general utility 
for the purposes of young students. He must have skill in 
handling books and in gleaning from them the information 
which he is seeking, because it is just this skill which he is 
trying to give to his pupils. No one would seriously think of 
putting in charge of a class in manual training a person who 
had himself never shoved a plane or measured a board. To 
turn over a class in history to be instructed by a person who 
is not acquainted with the tools of the trade and has had no 
practice in manipulating them is an equal absurdity. 

A successful teacher must have more than mere accurate 
information and professional knowledge. He needs to have a 
living sympathy with the tale which he tells. He must know 
how to bring out the dramatic aspects of his story. He must 
know how to awaken the interest and attention of his pupils, 
who will always be alert and eager if they feel that they are 
learning of the actual struggles and conflicts of men who had 
like passions with ourselves. Though stores of dates and 
names must be at the teacher's command, these are not 
enough. He must have had his own imagination fired and his 
enthusiasm kindled; he must know the sources of historical 
knowledge and the springs of historical inspiration; he must 
know the literature of history and be able to direct his pupils 
to stirring passages in the great historical masters ; he must 
know how to illumine and brighten the page by readings from 
literature and by illustrations from art. 

"It were far better," says Professor Dicey, "as things now 
stand, to be charged with heresy, or even to be found guilty of 
petty larceny, than to fall under the suspicion of lacking his- 
torical-mindedness, or of questioning the universal validity of 
the historical method." To cultivate historical-mindedness, to 
teach pupils to think historically and to approach facts with 
the historical spirit — this is the chief object of instruction in 
any field of history. But unless the teacher has had practice 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 489 

in dealing with facts, unless he has acquired perspective, 
unless he has become historical-minded and knows himself 
what the historical method is, he can not instruct his pupils. 
These characteristics can not be absorbed from a text-book in 
an hour or two before the recitation ; they are the products of 
time and toil. 

Possibly the day is far distant when all teachers in this 
country will be prepared for their duties by a long course of 
training such as is required of a teacher in European schools; 
but there are a few evidences that this time is slowly approach- 
ing. Beyond all question, some of the best teachers in our 
secondary schools are almost wholly self trained ; some of them 
are not college graduates. But these exceptions do not prove 
that advanced collegiate training and instruction are undesira- 
ble. In teaching a vital subject like history, much depends 
upon the personality of the teacher, upon his force, insight, 
tact, sympathy, upon qualities that can not be imparted by the 
university courses or by prolonged research. Though all this 
be true, every teacher should have had- some instruction in 
methods of teaching, and should have learned from precept 
what are the essentials of historical study and historical think- 
ing; and — what is of much greater importance — he should 
have so worked that he knows himself what historical facts 
are and how they are to be interpreted and arranged. The 
highly successful teacher in any field of work needs to be a 
student as well as a teacher, to be in touch with the subject 
as a growing, developing, and enlarging field of human 
knowledge. 

COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS.' 

Any consideration of college entrance requirements presents 
many difficulties; but probably no field of work offers greater 
problems than does that of history, because the schools have 
no common understanding as to the amount of history that 
should be offered in the curriculum, and because the univer- 
sities differ materially in their requirements. The first 

1 In 1896 the National Educational Association appointed a committee to consider the 
subject of college entrance requirements and to report a scheme of uniform require- 
ments. At the request of that committee the American Historical Association 
appointed the Committee of Seven to draft a scheme of college entrance requirements 
in history. The portion of our report that here follows was prepared with that purpose 
in mind, and substantially similar recommendations have already been made to Super- 
intendent Nightingale, as chairman of the committee of the National Educational 
Association. 



490 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

fundamental fact to be remembered is that a very large per- 
centage of secondary pupils do not go to college, and that in 
a very great majority of schools the courses must be adapted 
primarily for the pupils who finish their study with the second- 
ary school. It is often asserted that the course which fits 
pupils for college is equally well adapted to the uses of those 
who do not go to college. We do not care to argue this ques- 
tion, although we doubt very much if it be true that the 
requirements laid down for entrance to college, requirements 
which still bear the mark of the old regime, are likely to furnish 
the best equipment for the work and play of every-day life. 
Whether this be true or not, it is certainly wrong to shape 
secondary courses primarily with a view to college needs. In 
the great majority of schools the curriculum must be prepared 
with the purpose of developing boys and girls into young men 
and women, not with the purpose of fitting them to meet 
entrance examinations or of filling them with information 
which some faculty thinks desirable as a forerunner of college 
work. Many of the academies and some of the high schools 
can without much trouble meet the artificial requirements of 
the colleges; but a great majority of the high schools and 
some of the academies have great difficulty, and it is an almost 
impossible task so to arrange the programme that pupils can 
be fitted for more than one institution. 1 

For this reason we welcome the efforts of the committee of 
the National Educational Association to simplify and unify 
college entrance requirements. We believe, however, that the 
first requisite of a successful accomplishment of this task is a 
recognition of the fact that the great majority of schools are 
not fitting schools for college; and it seems to us that any 
rigid and inelastic regime which does not take into consider- 
ation the fact that schools are working in many different 
environments and are subject to different limitations and con- 
ditions can not be very widely accepted or prove useful for 
any length of time. We venture to suggest, therefore, that in 
any effort to simplify the situation by relieving the schools 
from the burden of trying to meet college requirements two 
things are essential. One is, that the fundamental scope and 
purpose of the major part of the secondary schools be regarded ; 

1 For example, in a catalogue of a good high school— a school rather large than small, 
and well equipped with teachers— we find these typical statements, that a pupil may 
prepare in that school for one of several universities, bnt that at the beginning of the 
second year he should know what he intends to do; and that a failure to choose 
accurately in any one semester involves the loss of a year. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 491 

the other, that such elasticity be allowed that schools may fit 
pupils for college and yet adapt themselves to some extent to 
local environment and local needs. 1 

We feel justified, therefore, as students and teachers, in 
marking out what we think is the best curriculum in history, 
in discussing the educational value of the study, in emphasiz- 
ing the thought that history is peculiarly appropriate in a 
secondary course, which is fashioned with the thought of pre- 
paring boys and girls for the duties of daily life and intelligent 
citizenship, and in dwelling upon methods for bringing out the 
pedagogical effect of historical work. It seems to us that, in 
consideration of the value and importance of historical work, 
and in light of the fact that so many thousands of pupils are 
now engaged iu historical study, the colleges should be ready 
to admit to their list of requirements a liberal amount of his- 
tory; but we do not feel that we should seek to lay down hard- 
and-fast entrance requirements in history and ask the colleges 
or the committee of the National Educational Association to 
declare in favor of an inflexible regime. 

For convenience of statement we have adopted, in the rec- 
ommendations which follow, the term "unit." By one unit we 
mean either one year of historical work wherein the study is 
given five times per week, or two years of historical work 
wherein the study is given three times per week. We have 
thought it best to take into consideration the fact that differ- 
ent colleges have now not only different requirements, but also 
entirely different methods of framing and i>roposing require- 
ments. It has not seemed wise, therefore, to outline historical 
courses on the supposition that all colleges would at once 
conform to a uniform arrangement. 

1. If a college or a scientific school has a system of com- 
plete options in college entrance requirements — that is, if it 
accepts a given number of years' work, or units, without pre- 
scribing specific subjects of study (as at Leland Stanford 
University) — we recommend that four units in history be 
accepted as an equivalent for a like amount of work in other 
subjects. Likewise, that one, two, or three units in history 
be accepted. 

1 It does not seem wise, even if it be possible, to outline the same rigid entrance require- 
ments for the University of California, University of Kansas, University of North Caro- 
lina, Vale, Harvard, Tulane, and a hundred others. This policy -would mean that 
secondary schools everywhere throughout the country must disregard local conditions 
and yield to an outside force. 



492 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

2. If a college or a scientific school requires a list of certain 
prescribed studies, and also demands additional subjects to be 
chosen out of an optional list (as at Harvard University), we 
recommend that one unit of history be placed on the list of 
definitely prescribed studies, and that one, two, or three units 
of history be placed among the optional studies. 

3. If a college or a scientific school has rigid requirements 
without options (as at Yale College and the Sheffield Scientific 
School), we recommend that at least one unit of history be 
required for entrance. 

These recommendations do not seem to us unreasonable, and 
we do not believe that their adoption would impose any bur- 
den upon college or preparatory schools. If the traditional 
requirements in other studies need to be diminished in order 
to allow one unit of history in any regime of rigid require- 
ments, we do not think that such diminution is unwise in light 
of the fact that history is now generally studied, and that the 
training obtained from historical work is an essential of good 
secondary education. It will be seen from the statement 
which follows (under 4) that we do. not recommend any par- 
ticular field or period of history as preferable to all others for 
the purpose of such requirements; to constitute this unit any 
one of the periods or blocks of history previously mentioned 
may be selected. 

4. Where a college has several distinct courses leading to 
different degrees, and has- different groups of preparatory 
studies, each group preparing for one of the college courses 
(as at the University of Michigan), the use to be made of his- 
tory requires more detailed exposition. In one of these pre- 
paratory courses the ancient languages receive chief attention; 
ic a second, a modern language is substituted for one of the 
ancient languages; in a third, the chief energy is devoted to 
natural sciences; in a fourth, main stress is laid upon history 
and English language and literature. The general recom- 
mendations given above will aid somewhat in outlining pre- 
paratory courses in history when such definite routes for 
admission to college are marked out: 

i, 'fte believe tliat in each preparatory course there should 
bt at least one unit of history. This recommendation means 
that classical students should have at least one full year of 
historical work. A course which purports to deal with the 
"humanities" can not afford to be without one year's work in 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 493 

a study whose sole theme Is humanity. When four years are 
given to Latin, two or more to Greek, two or three to mathe- 
matics, one, or perchance two, to science, some room should he 
found for history, even if the time given to other studies be 
diminished. If we take for granted the fact that the great 
majority of secondary pupils do not go to college, can we 
declare that they should go out into life with no knowledge of 
the humanities save that acquired by the study of the Greek 
and Latin tongues? 

To decide what field of history should be chosen is a matter 
of considerable difficulty. We believe it desirable that pupils 
should know the life and thought of Greece and Eome and the 
development of their civilization ; that they should study the 
great facts of European history after the downfall of the 
Roman Empire; that they should have some knowledge of 
how England grew to be a great empire and English liberty 
developed, and that they should come to know their own 
political surroundings by studying American history and gov- 
ernment. We hesitate, therefore, to recommend that any 
one particular field be chosen to the exclusion of the rest; 
and yet we think that far better educational results can be 
secured by devoting a year to a limited period than by attempt- 
ing to cover the history of the world in that length of time. 
We believe that it is more important that pupils should acquire 
knowledge of what history is and how it should be studied 
than that they should cover any particular field. 

Perhaps it is not impossible, in connection with the study of 
Greek and Latin, to pay such attention to the growth of Greece 
and Eome that the pupils may be led to an appreciation of the 
character and essential nature of ancient civilization. This is 
one of the great ends of historical work; and if the humanities 
can thus be humanized,. there will be less need of prescribing 
Greek or Soman history as a distinct subject for classical stu- 
dents, 1 and some other historical field may then he chosen. 
We can not be sure, however, that such methods of teaching 
the classics will prevail, and we must content ourselves with 
recommending one of the four blocks or periods- which are 
marked out in the earlier portions of this paper, without desig- 
nating any particular one. 

1 That the desirability of such a method is recognized by many classical teachers is 
shown, for example, by the paper by Prof. Clifford Moore on " How to enrich the classical 
course," published in the School Review, September, 1898. 



494 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

B. The secondary course, sometimes called the Latin course, 
in which a modern language takes the place of Greek, presents 
nearly the same problems as the classical course. It does not 
afford much time for the study of history. We therefore rec- 
ommend that some one of the four blocks mentioned above be 
selected. 

C. In the scientific secondary course more opportunity for 
historical study is often allowed, and here two units of history 
may be given. At least one of them will naturally be a modern 
field, and yet it may be said that it is highly desirable that 
scientific pupils should by the study of ancient history obtain 
something of the culture which is not wrongly supposed to 
come from the study of classical civilization. 

D. The fourth secondary course, commonly called the Eng- 
lish course, should have history for its backbone, inasmuch as 
it is a study peculiarly capable of being continued throughout 
the four years, and of offering that opportunity for continuous 
development which the classical pupil obtains from the pro- 
longed study of Latin. We strongly advise that sustained 
effort be devoted to history in order that this course may have 
a certain consistency and unity. There are already schools 
that offer history for four years, and give four full units, con- 
sisting substantially of the four blocks we have outlined. If 
the four full units can not be given, it may be well to offer 
history only three times a week in one of the four years. If 
only three years can be devoted to the study, one of the four 
blocks must, as we have already said, be omitted, or two fields 
must be compressed in some such manner as that suggested in 
the earlier portion of this report. 1 

The general recommendations under this head may then be 
summed up as follows: (a) For the classical course, one unit of 
history, to consist of one of the four blocks previously men- 
tioned; (b) for the Latin course, the same; (c) for the scientific 
course, two units consisting of any two of the blocks; (d) for 
the English course, three units consisting of any three of the 
blocks, or consisting of two blocks and a combination of two 
others. We strongly recommend that lour years of history be 
given in this course, in order to make history one of the cen- 
tral subjects. 

It should be said in conclusion that, in demanding but one 
unit of history as the minimum requirement for entrance to a 

1 See above, p. 451. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 495 

college or a scientific school, the committee does not wish to 
be understood as expressing its approval of this amount as an 
adequate course in history for secondary schools. In this por- 
tion of the report we have been obliged to work within the 
limits of the systems of entrance requirements that now pre- 
vail, and to frame recommendations that may be adapted to 
existing conditions; but we do not believe that a single unit 
of history constitutes a sufficient course, viewed with reference 
either to the relative importance of the subject or to the pos- 
sibility of realizing the aims of historical instruction within 
the time that would thus be at the teacher's disposal. The 
arguments for the necessity of a comprehensive and substantial 
course in history have been presented at length in the earlier 
sections of this report; ami, though it may not at present be 
feasible for every college to require more than one unit of his- 
tory, the committee believes that two units should constitute 
the minimum amount offered in any school, and it maintains 
that a still more extended course in history has claims quite 
equal to those that may be urged on behalf of any other study 
in the secondary curriculum. 

Entrance Examinations. 

One subject connected with college entrance requirements 
has peculiar importance in connection with the study of his- 
tory, namely, that of entrance examinations. Higher institu- 
tions that admit students on the basis of certificates need 
have no administrative difficulty in giving large recognition 
to history as a preparatory subject, but in colleges and uni- 
versities that can be entered only after passing examinations 
the problem is somewhat different. As has been emphasized 
elsewhere in this report, the utility of historical study lies not 
only in the acquisition of certain important facts, but in great 
measure in its indirect results in training the powers of discrim- 
ination and judgment; it will often happen that pupils who 
have profited largely from their study of history will, especially 
after two or three years have elapsed, show surprising lacuna 
in their stores of historical information. While a course in 
history should be progressive and build steadily upon what 
has gone before, one stage does not depend so immediately 
upon the preceding, and involve so persistent a review of 
earlier work, as is the case in language and mathematics; and 
besides, growth in power of historical thinking is much harder 



496 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

to measure than progress iu mathematical knowledge or in 
linguistic facility. These difficulties are present in some 
degree, even when the candidate is examined on work done in 
history in the last year of the secondary school; but they 
become exceedingly serious when the subject has been studied 
some years before, or when the course in history covers two, 
three, or four years of the period of secondary instruction. 

The remedy, in our opinion, lies, not in the exclusion or 
unnatural restriction of history as a subject for entrance, but 
in the reform of methods of examination in history; if the 
present system of entrance examination does not — and it gen- 
erally does not — properly test the qualifications of candidates 
in history, it is time to consider how it may be changed. Cer- 
tainly nothing has done more to discredit history as a subject 
for college entrance than the setting of papers which demand 
no more preparation than a few weeks' cram. The suggestions 
which follow are offered in the hope, not that they will afford 
a final solution of the problem, but that they may prove helpful 
in bringing about a more just and adequate system of examina- 
tions in history. The complete adoption of them will natu- 
rally involve a larger allotment of time to history than is now 
given in examination schedules, and will impose a heavier 
burden upon those to whose lot the reading of papers in his- 
tory falls; but it is not likely that the demands on time and 
energy will prove greater than iu other well-recognized admis- 
sion subjects, and it is not unreasonable to expect college 
authorities to make suitable provision in these regards. 

The main element in entrance examinations iu history must 
probably continue to be the written paper, but this should be 
set with the idea of testing to some extent the candidate's 
ability to use historical material, as well as his knowledge of 
important facts. The information questions should not de- 
mand the simple reproduction of the statement of the text, 
but should in large measure be so framed as to require the 
grouping of facts in a different form from that followed in the 
books recommended for preparation. There should also be 
questions involving some power of discrimination and some 
use of legitimate comparison on the part of the candidate. It 
is not to be expected that skill in utilizing historical material 
will be present in a high degree in the candidate for admission 
to college, but the student who has learned how to handle 
books and to extract information from them in the course of 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 497 

his secondary studies lias the right and the ability to make 
this knowledge count for something toward college entrance. 
As suitable tests we may suggest comment on carefully chosen 
brief extracts from simple sources or modern works, analysis 
or discussion of more extended passages, supplemented per- 
haps by outline maps or concrete illustrations — anything, in 
short, that will show the student's capacity of taking up a 
fresh question in a way that indicates some development of 
the historical sense. Naturally, attainments in this direction 
will be expected chiefly of those who present history as an 
additional option. 

Doubtless to many these tests will appear sufficient; but it 
must always be borne in mind that a written paper, even when 
the questions have been prepared with great care, can not yield 
such decisive results in history as it can, for example, in a sub- 
ject like English composition. The examiner should always 
have an opportunity — and particularly in doubtful cases — of 
supplementing by other means the information gained from 
the paper. One excellent adjunct is the submission by the 
candidate of written work done in connection with his study 
of history in school. This may include notebooks, abstracts 
of reading, and prepared papers, none of which, however, 
should be accepted without proper guaranties of authenticity 
and independent preparation. Another supplementary test, 
which is largely used in European examinations and has com- 
mended itself to the experience of many American examiners, 
consists of a brief oral conference with the candidate. This 
should be quite informal in character, and should aim to dis- 
cover, if possible, something concerning the personality of the 
candidate and the nature of his historical training, rather than 
to elicit brief answers to a few arbitrarily chosen questions. 

The following analytical statement will show at a glance our 
recommendation concerning the organization of the history 
course. 

FOUR YEARS' COURSE IN HISTORY. 

First year. — Ancient history to 800 A. D. 

Second year. — Mediaeval and modern European history. 

Third year. — English history. 

Fourth year. — American history and civil government. 

THREE TEARS' COURSE IN HISTORY. 

A. 

Any three of the above blocks. 

HIST 98 32 



498 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

B. 

First or second year. — Ancient history to 800 A. D. 

Second or third year.— English history, with special reference to the chief 

events in the history of Continental Europe. 
Third or fourth year.— American history and civil government. 

C. 

First or second year. — Ancient history to 800 A. D. 
Second or third year. — Mediaeval and modern European history. 
Third or fourth year. — American history, with a consideration of the chief 
events in the history of England. ■ 

D. 

First year. — Ancient history to 800 A. D. 

Second year. — English history, with reference to the chief events in later 

mediaeval history (three times per week). 
Third year. — English history, with reference to the chief events in modern 

ern European history (three times per week)* 
Fourth year. — American history and civil government. 

E. 

First year. — Ancient history to 800 A. D. 

Second year. — Mediaeval and modern European history. ■ 

Third year.— American history, with special reference to the development 
of English political principles and English expansion in connection 
with American colonial history (three times per week). 

Fourth year. — American history and civil government (three times per 
week). 

This report is offered with the hope that it maybe of service 
to teachers of history and to those who have the task of 
arranging' school programmes. We hope also that it does not 
inadequately express the opinion of progressive teachers and 
students as to what should be done for the development of 
secondary school work in history. 

Andrew C. McLaughlin, Chairman, 
Professor of American History in the University of Michigan. 
Herbert B. Adams, 
Professor of American and Institutional History in 

Johns Hopkins University. 
George L. Fox, 
Rector of the Hoplcins Grammar School, New Haven, Conn. 
Albert Bushnell Hart, 
Professor of History in Harvard University. 
Charles H. Haskins, 
Professor of Institutional History in the University of Wisconsin. 
Lucy M. Salmon, 

Professor of History in Vassar College. 
H. Morse Stephens, 
Professor of Modern European History in Cornell University. 



Appendix I. 

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF HISTORY TEACHING 
IN AMERICAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

At the very outset of its work tbe committee, believing that 
recommendations must proceed from a knowledge of the 
conditions and results in the schools, undertook to learn as far 
as possible what was actually being done by the secondary 
schools in tbe country in the subject of history. A circular 
was accordingly prepared in elaborate form in the hope that 
the answers to the questions thus proposed would give tbe 
committee a basis of fact. These circulars were not sent 
broadcast; in each State, so far as possible, some person 
acquainted with tbe educational work of that State sent us a 
short list of tyx>ical schools, large, middle-sized, and small, 
public and private, and we thus made up' a list of about three 
hundred schools which would reflect the conditions of the 
whole country. From most of the schools thus approached 
answers were received, perhaps two hundred and sixty in all. 
Of these, two hundred and ten were sufficiently full on most 
points to admit of some sort of tabulation from which general 
tendencies might be perceived. 

In going over the returns difficulties were encountered. 
Notwithstanding the combined efforts of the committee some 
of the questions were not so framed as to bring out precisely 
what was wanted. Accordingly, toward the end of the inves- 
tigation a considerable number of the schools which had 
replied to the first circular were asked to send answers to a 
second much briefer and simpler set of questions, intended 
principally to make clear the practice and opinion of educators 
on the points that hjtd proved the most difficult for tbe com- 
mittee. A copy of this circular will be found at the end of 
this appendix. 

As is usual in inquiries by correspondence, the returns show 
more certainly what schools do not do than what they do; the 
negative evidence is convincing that the schools have a great 
variety of programmes and methods, but it is hard to be sure 
that any considerable number have the same system or attach 

499 



500 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

the same meaning to such terms as " collateral reading," 
" topics," " use of maps," " notebooks," etc. The general in- 
ferences from the circulars, however, agree with the results of 
many personal conferences with teachers, by showing that a 
large number of schools set themselves earnestly to the task 
of teaching history; that a large number make a sufficient 
time allowance to deserve good results; and that the general 
notions as to methods are on the same lines throughout the 
country. Such generalizations as the committee thinks itself 
justified in making on question of details, from the returns to 
the two circulars, supplemented by its private information, 
may be briefly stated as follows : 

1. Choice of Subjects. 

The subjects in the order of their frequency are: (1) English 
and American history, taught in more than half the schools; 
(2) " general history," taught in almost exactly half the 
schools; (3) Greek and Roman history, taught in about half 
the schools; (4) European history, taught in about one-third 
of the schools, the three forms — mediaeval, modern, and Erench 
history — being about equally common. In a very few schools 
the history of the State in which they are situated is a sub- 
ject. The favorite topics are, therefore, English and American 
history, usually both taught in the same school; Greek and 
Roman history, usually both taught in the same school; and 
some form of a broader history, commonly the so-called " gen- 
eral history." 

On the subject of general history there appears to be wide 
divergence of practice as well as of opinion. In the Middle 
States, most of the schools reporting have a one-year course, 
as have also a considerable number in the West; in New Eng- 
land, preponderance of sentiment is against such a course. In 
some cases the course takes the form of mediaeval history alone; 
in some cases that of Erench history as a ground work — the 
system recommended by the Madison Conference; in most 
instances the course is apparently a general survey based on 
one text-book, with little or no collateral reading or illustrative 
work. 

2. Order of Subjects. 

The committee has taken pains to ascertain the more com- 
mon preferences as to the succession of historical subjects, and 
finds that in general four different systems have been followed : 
(1) About one-third of the schools follow the chronological 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 501 

method, taking up in succession ancient history, general his- 
tory, and modern history in some form, usually English or 
American, or both ; that is, they use general history as a bridge 
between ancient times and our modern nations. (2) A much 
smaller number of schools, perhaps a seventh of the whole, 
prefer the order, general, ancient, and modern; that is, first 
of all a survey of the whole field, and then more detailed 
study, first of the ancient period, then of the modern. This 
method is apparently less common in New England than in 
the West. (3) The third method begins with American, or 
sometimes with English history, and then takes general his- 
tory, bringing in ancient history last. About one-fifth of the 
schools reporting use this system, which is least common in 
the Middle States, and which would seem to be devised to 
bring ancient history into a place convenient for college exam- 
inations. (4) A fourth method, which prevails in more than a 
quarter of the schools, is that of beginning with American, 
following with ancient history, and ending with a general 
course ; that is, they proceed from the particular to the general. 
To make the generalization in broader form, the returns 
from a body of schools most interested in the subject of history 
show that one-half prefer to begin with the history nearest to 
the pupils in experience, and then to take up wider choices, 
while one-third have the chronological system, and the remain- 
der begin with the general survey of the whole field. 

3. Separate College Courses. 

The report of the committee of ten bore very strongly 
against establishing courses in any one subject for the benefit 
of only those pupils who expect to go to college; and that 
recommendation exactly coincides with the actual experience 
of the schools so far as the study of history is concerned. 
Three-fourths of them advocate, and probably practice, the 
system of having the same teaching for both classes of pupils. 
This generalization applies also to New England, although in 
that section there is a large number of special preparatory 
schools. 

4. Time Given to History. 

One of the arguments frequently urged against insisting on 
a good secondary course in history is that there is no time for 
it. The committee therefore has taken some trouble to ascer- 
tain the time allowance now made in various schools, asking 



502 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

iii the second circular the specific question: "What is the 
maximum uumber of exercises in. history in your whole cur- 
riculum (allowing forty weeks as a school year) open to a 
pupil who chooses that course which has most history in it?" 
There seems no reason to doubt the sincerity and accuracy of 
the replies to this question, although the results are surpris- 
ing. Only one-seventh of the schools offer less than 200 exer- 
cises in one or another of their curricula. Probably there are 
courses, as the classical or the scientific, in which this maxi- 
mum number of exercises is not attainable by any one pupil, 
even although the facilities of the school permit the offering 
of detached parts of a good course. Three-fourths of the 70 
schools scattered throughout the country which report on this 
question offer more than 400 exercises; that is, the equivalent 
of five exercises a week during two years. The Middle and 
Western States are rather more alive than New England to 
the importance of history; and some schools both in the East 
and West allow as much as 800 exercises. It is therefore safe 
to assume that good secondary schools can so arrange their 
schedules as to make a proper time allowance for history. 

5. Text-Books. 

Knowledge as to the actual methods pursued in schools is 
difficult to gain from written circulars, because so much de- 
pends upon the understanding and use of terms; but the 
experience of the members of the committee gained by asso- 
ciation with secondary teachers, and in many cases by actual 
personal knowledge Of iheir work, supplements and corrects 
such generalizations as may be made from the returns to our 
circulars. The text-books used are legion, and without men 
tiouing titles, it is the judgment of the committee that, 
although the old-fashioned and discarded books are now 
disappearing, the favorite text-books seem still to be the 
briefer ones. Few schools appear to select a book with a 
good round amount of reading matter; hence, unless supple- 
mented by other work, the text-books used are likely to furnish 
an insufficient mental pabulum. Some specific information 
has been obtained about the opinion of selected teachers as to 
the wisdom of using more than one kind of text-book in the 
same class. Opinion seems about evenly divided, with a pre- 
ponderance against the practice. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 503 

6. Collateral Reading. 

On the question of supplementing text-books with addi- 
tional reading of some sort there seems little difference of 
opinion. Only one principal known to the committee advo- 
cates the extensive use of the text-book with little or no addi- 
tional work; about one-half the selected principals favor a 
large amount of collateral reading; the other half prefer more 
searching text-book work and less reading. In view of this 
very distinct preference, it is surprising to find how few of the 
schools really seem fitted out with good collections of standard 
secondary writers, suitable either for reading or for written 
work. Even schools with considerable libraries appear unable 
to keep up with the new general books, which would be so use- 
ful to pupils. 

Perhaps this lack of material accounts for the facts that very 
few schools (most of them in the Middle States) actually re- 
quire as many as three hundred pages of collateral reading in 
connection with a course of five hours per week for a year, 
and that three-fourths of the schools have no specified require- 
ments. Apparently pupils are invited to browse, but there is 
no system of enforcing the reading. Perhaps some of these 
schools may, without specifying a fixed number of pages, re- 
quire results which may be gained from any one of several 
books; but it seems a fair inference from the replies that as 
yet the schools have not fully introduced the system of collat- 
eral reading, and that many of them have not the necessary 
library. „ 

7. Written Work. 

Prom the replies received, written work seems to be reasona- 
bly well established ; very few schools report that they require 
none. In most cases this work makes? up less than one- third 
of the time spent by the pupils in a course. A great variety 
of written exercise are in use, and the schools seem eager to 
further the method; but in many schools it appears not to be a 
very exacting part of the historical work. Many teachers are 
struck with the effect of written work in training the mem- 
ory and the powers of selection and in developing a capacity 
for individual thought. They see also that accuracy of arrange- 
ment and the power of analysis are induced, as well as an 
acquaintance with the material, and an ability to learn facts 



504 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

and to state them cogently. The criticisms most often passed 
upon such work are three: That it runs to routine aud copy- 
ing; that it consumes too much time, and that "it kills off 
good teachers." It appears, however, that these disadvantages 
have not been sufficient to cause the giving up of the system, 
which in a considerable body of schools is now fairly established. 

8. Use of Sources. 

The reports of more than sixty principals on the subject of 
using historical sources, either as collateral reading or as mate- 
rial for written work, show that this system has little hold in 
the Middle States, much in New England, and some in the 
West. Nearly half the principals do not favor it, and some 
who like it have not sufficient books. The objections appear 
to be, first, that it is a time-consuming method; second, that 
it throws upon the pupils an undue responsibility beyond their 
years and understanding, and third, that it is "an attempt to 
foist upon the preparatory student the work of the university 
specialist." The arguments used in favor of the method are 
that it teaches the habit of getting at the bottom of a question; 
that it induces methods of correct note taking and record; that 
it trains individual judgment; that it "vitalizes" history and 
leads to greater interest and zeal. From the replies it seems 
doubtful whether all the teachers know what is meant by 
"sources," or understand where to stop in using them in con- 
nection with busy school work. 

9. Teachers. 

One question asked of the selected principals was: "Are 
your teachers of history especially prepared for that work, as 
your teachers of languages or science are expected to be pre- 
pared?" To this question one-fourth frankly answered that 
they had no teachers of history who had been especially pre- 
pared. About another fourth put part of their history work 
into the hands of untrained teachers. Something more than 
half give no work except to those who have special prepara- 
tion. The Middle aud Western States have in this respect a 
great advantage over New England, where the idea that none 
but persous who know history can teach history seems slow of 
infiltration. 

10. College Requirements. 

It is not the function of this committee to make up a college 
entrance system, but rather to suggest a plan of study for the 
schools, and the committee has abstained from recommending 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 505 

any distinct system or method. As a means of collecting in- 
formation it asked for the opinions of teachers as to a plan 
which has become known through the country. One of the 
specific questions asked was therefore as to the state of mind 
towards "the recommendation of the New York conference of 
1896," which was substantially as follows : 

(a) Minimum time, two years, three exercises per week (or 
one year, five exercises per week). 

(6) A good text-book. 

(c) Collateral reading. 

(d) Written work (a notebook, to be certified by the teacher). 

(e) Presumably two subjects, as Greek and Eoman, or Eng- 
lish and American. 

This recommendation has the qualified, or slightly qualified, 
approval of a little more than half the principals replying, 
and seems to meet with little objection in New England, where 
various colleges have indeed adopted it. The criticisms are 
most numerous from the West, but about half the objectors 
take exception only to the time requirement; they urge that 
the colleges ought to require more subjects, or at least that 
the minimum time ought to be enlarged. Four persons object 
to the collateral reading — none from New England. To writ- 
ten work there is little or no specific objection. The most fre- 
quent criticism is as to the notebook requirement. On that 
point one-ninth of the answers protest. A small number 
object to the choice of subjects stated by the conference. To 
sum up the returns on this question, the serious objections 
raised are not against a wider allowance of history, but against 
details, of which the notebook suggestion is the point most 
criticised. 

SUMMARY. 

In this attempt to state in a few words the practices and 
preferences of the three thousand secondary schools in the 
country, the committee has availed itself, first, of the experi- 
ence of its own members, four of whom have been teachers 
in secondary schools ; second, of the acquaintance of the mem- 
bers of the committee with teachers, schools, and conditions 
in the various parts of the country; third, of answers to the 
circulars sent to schools, stated by educational authorities to 
be representative, some of which are very large and strong, 
some smaller, and some weak. In the 260 schools replying 
out of this category, an attempt has been made to discover 



506 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

the practice in teaching history; and a second inquiry has 
been sent out to a body of schools which from their answers 
to the first circulars seemed in a position to furnish represent- 
ative information. If the committee has misjudged what the 
schools are doing and may be expected to do, it has not been 
from lack of effort, or from preconceptions as to what the 
schools ought to do, but from the impossibility of generalizing 
where the practices of the schools are so varied. 

CIRCULARS. 

It has not seemed necessary to reprint the first circular of 
inquiry; but we add a copy of the second circular, since it 
was directed to the questions which in the -course of the inves- 
tigation seemed vital. 

My Dear Sir: Some tilne ago you were good enough, at the request of 
this committee, to fill out a circular of inquiry as to the teaching of history 
in your school. We beg to thank you for your courtesy, and to express 
our sense of the helpfulness of your answers. 

In attempting to collect the answers from various sources, and to arrive 
at a just estimate of what the schools are doing and can do, we need 
definite statements on a few points, in a form for comparison; and we 
therefore ask you to add to the obligation under which you have placed 
the committee and all those interested iu the proper teaching of history, 
by briefly stating your practice and your preferences with regard to the 
subjects mentioned below. 

The committee will feel very grateful for suggestions of any difficulties 
which you foresee in the new methods which have recently been brought 
forward. We want to know both sides, so that we may make no recom- 
mendations which will not commend themselves to intelligent teachers. 

In order to be available, your answer should reach the secretary of the 
committee by December 17. Please answer on this sheet or otherwise, 
numbering the answers in sequence. Your answer is not to be made 
public; and even the briefest replies will be much appreciated, if time 
presses. 

1. Cotirses. — What is your practice and what is your opinion on having 
a separate course in history for those only who expect to go to 
college, and another course for others? 

2. Order of courses. — What do you consider the best order in which to take 

up the five subjects most frequently offered, viz, American, English, 
General, Greek, Roman? 

3. General history. — What is your practice and what is your opinion as to 

a one year's course (of five exercises a week) in "general history?' 

4. Time given to history. — What is the maximum number of exercises in 

history in your whole curriculum (allowing forty weeks as a school 
year), open to a pupil who chooses that course which has most 
history in it? 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 507 

5. Text-books. — What is your practice and your opinion, as to using more 

than one kind of text-books in the same class? 

6. Collateral reading. — Which of the following systems do you prefer : 

Simply a text-book drilled over and over; or a text-book thoroughly 
taught, with some collateral reading ; or a text-book carefully read 
as a backbone, with much collateral reading? How many pages of 
collateral reading do you actually require in a course of five hours 
a week for a year? 

7. Written work. — Do your pupils do substantial and systematic written 

work throughout their history courses — sufficient to make up, say, a 
third of their history work? What advantages and disadvantages 
do you notice in written work? 

8. Sources. — Do you use sources for any purpose — either as collateral 

reading or as material for written work? What do you consider 
the advantages and disadvantages of the method? 

9. Teachers.^ Are your teachers of history especially prepared for that 

work, as your teachers of languages or science are expected to be 
prepared ? 
10. College requirements. — What is your judgment of the recommendation 
of the New York conference of 1896 for a uniform entrance require- 
ment? It is substantially as follows: 

(a) Minimum time two years, three exercises a week (or one year, 

five exercises a week). 
(h.) A good text-book. 

(c) Collateral reading. 

(d) Written work (a notebook to be certified by the teacher). 

(e) Presumably two subjects, as Greek and Roman, or English 

and American. 



EXHIBITS. 

The following courses of study are actually followed, out. 
The first (A) is the course of an Eastern high school; the 
second, of a Western high school. They are offered here sim- 
ply as exhibits, showing how practical teachers in the second- 
ary schools have arranged their programmes so as to give 
time for long and continuous courses in history. The com- 
mittee does not offer them as models to which the schools are 
asked to conform, hut as suggestions that are valuable because 
now carried into operation. 



508 



AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 



H 
< 


English I. 

Mathematics I. 
(■Drawing I, clay 
\ modeling. 


H 

>> 

O 

5 


English II. 

Mathematics II. 

History II. 
f Drawing II and 
\ wood carving. 


English III or 
mathematics III. 
lie in is try or 
French I or Ger- 
man I. 
History III. 
1 Drawing III, clay 
} modeling ana 
[ wood carving. 


History IV. 

English III or IV 
or history of art. 

History of art or 
J' rench II or Ger- 
man 11. 
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Appendix II. 

STUDY OF HISTORY BELOW THE SECONDARY 
SCHOOL. 1 

By Lucy M. Salmon. 

The question of instruction in history in the grades below 
the high school is one that concerns the present condition of 
such instruction, and also one of an ideal condition toward 
which it may be possible to work. An inquiry 2 in regard to 
history in the public schools of the different States leads to the 
conclusion that the instruction at present given in this subject 
leaves much to be desired. 

A superficial examination of the repiies received shows that 
only one-half of the States have a uniform course in history, 
and that even in those States having snch a course adherence 
to it is sometimes optional with the schools. 3 It is not possi- 
ble to discuss here the advantages of uniform curricula within 
limited areas, but it may be noted that progress in education 
has invariably followed the adoption of such a uniform course, 
and that those nations that have uniformity to-day have, as a 
rule, the best systems of education. With two exceptions, the 
ten States of the Union that have no uniform course of instruc- 
tion are among the most backward in America in all matters 
of public education. 

The second noteworthy fact is the absence in nearly all of 
the States of a clear and definite understanding of the place 

1 This report was prepared by the writer while in Paris, and it has not received the 
benefit of criticism from the other members of the committee. The writer therefore 
desires to assume the personal responsibility of the recommendations included in it. 

2 The inquiry was addressed to the superintendents of public instruction, and the 
result was as follows : 

States having a uniform course in history 22 

States having such a course in preparation 4 

States having no uniform course 10 

Indefinite replies 4 

Xo reply 5 

45 
3 " Xo school in the Commonwealth (Massachusetts) is required to pursue this course 
of study. I do not know of any school that adheres to it in all its details." — F. A. Hill, 
Secretary of the State board of education. 

511 



512 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

of history in the curriculum. History is generally taught 
"because everyone ought to know something of the history of 
his own country," yet no explanation is given for this asser- 
tion, and there is often no appreciation of the educational 
value of historical study. Any course of instruction leaves 
something to be desired if it does not show obvious reasons 
for its existence. 

The corresponding noteworthy fact is that, if a definite rea- 
son for the study of history is presented, it is the factitious one 
of patriotism. 1 The idea that the chief object in teaching his- 
tory is to teach patriotism is so thoroughly ingrained, not only 
in America but in other countries, 2 that it is extremely difficult 
to combat it. Yet it must be evident that the patriotism thus 
advocated is more or less a spurious one, a patriotism that 
would seek to present distorted ideas of the past with the idea 
of glorifying one country at the possible expense of truth. If 
the facts of the Franco-Prussian war should be used both in 
France and in Germany to inculcate this kind of patriotism, 
diametrically opposite results would be reached; if the Ameri- 
can Eevolution is to teach this patriotism both in England and 
in America, one nation or the other must be illogical; if the 
Northern and the Southern States of America should use the 
facts of the civil war to promote either a national or a sectional 
patriotism of this character, those facts would have to be per- 
verted. That the ultimate object of history, as of all sciences, 
is the search for truth, and that that search entails the respon- 
sibility of abiding by the results when found, is yet to be 
learned by many of our teachers of history. 

The present condition of instruction in history in the schools 
is open to criticism for another reason. The curriculum has in 
many cases not been the result of educational experience or a 
product of educational theory. This fact explains in large 
measure the prevailing desire to use history as a vehicle for 
teaching patriotism. It probably does not admit of question 

1 ' Kindle the fires of patriotism and feed them constantly. "—Nevada. 

' Develop patriotism —Colorado. 

The object 'is to make our boys and girls true patriots''— North Carolina. 

2 In France, the question was asked of the candidates for the modern baccalaureate, 
July. 1897, "What purpose does the caching of history serve?" and 80 per cent answered, 
• to promote patriotism — Lauglois and Seignobos. Introduction mix Eludes Historiques, 
288, 289. 

The theories of the Emperor of Germany are well known, and it is perhaps inevitable, 
in view of the long struggle of Germany for nationality, that the teaching of history in 
Germany should be more or less colored by a desire to emphasize the progress the Empire 
has made in this direction. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 513 

that the curriculum of the public schools must aud should be 
enacted by the State legislatures, but it is equally true that 
behind these legislatures should be organized bodies of com- 
petent advisers, to whose decisions on educational matters the 
State legislatures should give the weight of their authority 
rather than themselves assume the initiative. 

Another result of the condition just mentioned is the tend- 
ency to attempt only the teaching of United States history. 
The makers of our programmes have encouraged the public to 
believe that the history of the United States is the only history 
worth studying, in that it is as a rule the only history pre- 
scribed; it is studied in the seventh grade from 1492 to 1789, 
and in the eighth grade from 1789 to the present. In at least 
eleven of the States the history of the State is also prescribed; 
and in only five does the curriculum contain any suggestion as 
to teaching the history of other countries. Their argument (in 
which much truth lies) is the double one of sentiment and 
of utility; of sentiment because we should keep an unbroken 
connection with our past; of utility because citizenship should 
be based on an intelligent understanding of past as well as of 
present political conditions. Yet there are grave objections to 
this exclusive study of the history of the United States. Such 
study must be, first of all, insufficient. It gives but a warped, 
narrow, circumscribed view of history; it is history detached 
from its natural foundation — European history; it is history 
suspended in mid-air; it is history that has no natural begin- 
ning apart from its connection with European history. 

It is indeed difficult to decide where the history of America 
should begin — if with the period of discovery and exploration, 
then it is in reality European history; if with the period of 
colonization, then it is rather English history; if with the 
adoption of the Constitution, then it is the history of a youth 
after he has attained his majority, but whose past is in oblivion. 
If it is true that the history of England is the only history 
studied in the elementary and the higher grade board schools 
of England, it is also true that the history of England is so 
intimately connected with that of the Continent that some 
knowledge of general European history must of necessity be 
acquired through this study of a limited field. Yet it is also 
true that the teaching of history in England is far inferior to 
that in Germany and in France, and no small element in this 
inferiority is the limitation of the course to the history of Eng- 
land. If the instruction in history in France and in Germany 
hist 98 33 



514 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

is confessedly superior to that given in other countries, it is in 
no small part due to the breadth of view gained through the 
careful study of tbe history of other nations. The social unit, 
the political unit, the ecclesiastical unit, is constantly enlarg- 
ing, and the educational curriculum must widen its boundaries 
if it is to keep pace with the evolution in other directions. 

But difficult as it is to find substantial reasons for the exclu- 
sive study of United States history as a whole, it is still more 
difficult to find them for the study of the history of the indi- 
vidual States. This history, prescribed by at least eleven of 
the State legislatures, is an evidence of misdirected patriotism 
and also probably a result of the pedagogical cry that swept 
the country a few years ago, "from the known to the unknown/' 
But the demand for State history rests on no substantial 
basis either historical or pedagogical. Every State in the 
Union has artificial boundary lines determined by T)rovincial 
grants or by legislative acts according to parallels of latitude 
and longitude, and to attempt to endow these artificially 
created States with the attributes of organic States is to dis- 
tort historical truth. It is ecpially true that the demand that 
a study should proceed "from the known to the unknown," 
may involve a fallacy, that what lies nearest may sometimes 
be most obscure, and what is remote in time or place be most 
easily understood. 

It must be understood that this criticism is not one of the 
study of Americau history, but of its exclusive study and of 
the reasons so often assigned for this study. Any study of 
American history must be worse than barren that demands 
the memorizing of a text-book, but that leaves a boy in igno- 
rance as to what are the fundamental facts in American his- 
tory; that insists upon detailed information in regard to the 
campaigns of the Bevolutionary war, but that has implanted 
no notion of personal responsibility to the Government estab- 
lished through that war. In many States, where the foreign 
element is large, there is absolute ignorance of the nature of 
republican institutions. In others, where the native-born cle- 
ment predominates, there is often no appreciation either of the 
duties or of the privileges or of the opportunities of citizen- 
ship. History as taught in either of these classes of States is 
open to the same criticism as is historical instruction in the 
European schools, where the history of the past is taught 
without reference to the conditions of the present. These 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 515 

grave faults must be avoided in American schools by the 
insistence at all times upon the fact that "good citizenship 
must be the religion of the common schools.'' ' 

Other defects in the study of history in the grades are 
apparent. The history of the United States is studied during 
the last two years of the grammar grade, when the boy or girl 
is from twelve to fourteen years old. This means that valuable 
time has been lost, that long before this age the interest of the 
child should have been awakened and held by the pictures of 
the past. Again, there is little evidence to show that history 
is united either with geography or literature. In several of 
the States history is not begun until geography is finished, 
and in others history is absolutely divorced from the instruc- 
tion in English. Text books are used without collateral read- 
ing, and sometimes the subject is divided by administrations, 
sometimes by pages. 2 In one State, the work in history is 
given during the first three years in the form of stories, and 
the instructions published for the ensuing four years are to 
repeat the previous stories. In another State civics alternates 
with physiology. In apparently but four of the States has 
there been any consultation whatever with competent advisers 
in historical instruction regarding the course in history to be 
prescribed for the grades. 

Examination, therefore, seems to show that the present con- 
dition of instruction in history in the grades below the high 
school is defective in that uniformity is so seldom found ; that 
there is no definite, well-defined object in teaching history; 
that when an object is presented, it is generally the factitious 
one of patriotism; that as a rule the course is not prescribed 
by either experts in history or in education; that only United 
States history and State history are taught; that history is not 
studied in connection with other subjects in the curriculum; 
that a slavish use is too often made of the text book :; ; that 

'Muck of tliis work of inculcating right ideas of personal responsibility may lie dime 
incidentally in connection with other parts of the programme. Washington's Birthday, 
Lincoln's Birthday, Decoration Day, election day, general exercises, debating clubs, 
work in English, and a score of other occasions, present constant opportunity for giving 
incidental and yet serious information in regard to American affairs and I'm- awakening 
an interest in them. 

2 In one State the text-book used during the eighth year is divided into ten parts of 
about thirty pages each, and one part is assigned for each month. 

3 In 1893, eight y-two schools in New Haven County, Conn., were asked : "Is the memor- 
iter method used.'" Thirty-seven schools answered "Yes," thirty-nine "No," and six, 
"III part." One teacher in another county was "not particular about the words of the 
text, if the pupils gave words as good." 



516 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

a mechanical division of the subject matter by pages or by 
administrations is often adopted, and that all instruction in this 
subject is deferred until late in the course. 

No criticism of existing institutions is justified unless it car- 
ries with it a recommendation of changes that will possibly 
bring improvement. In addition to the study that has been 
made of what is actually done in some of the best American 
schools, a careful study has been made of the programmes of 
the work in history in the schools of England, France, and 
Germany, and many of these schools have been personally 
visited. It is believed that the following scheme of work in his- 
tory can not only be justified by appeal to educational theory, 
but that it can also be defended as practical, inasmuch as it is 
already carried out either wholly or in part in many schools. 

Grade III. — Stories from the Iliad, the Odyssey, the 
iEneid, the Sagas, the Mebelungen Lied ; the stories of King- 
Arthur, Roland, Hiawatha. 

Grade IV. — Biographies of characters prominent in history : 
Greece — Lycurgus, Solon, Darius, Miltiades,Leonidas, Pericles, 
Socrates, Alexander, Demosthenes, Plutarch; Borne — Romu- 
lus, Virginia, Horatius, Oincinnatus, Regulus, Hannibal, Cato, 
Ponrpey, Cresar, Agricola 5 Germany — Arminius, Alaric, 
Charlemagne, Henry IV, Frederick Barbarossa, Gutenberg, 
Charles V, Luther, Frederick the Great, Bismarck; France — 
Clovis, Charlemagne, Louis IX, Joan of Arc, Bayard, Palissy, 
Francis I, Henry IV, Eichelieu, Napoleon ; England — Alfred, 
William I, Richard I, Warwick, Elizabeth, Sidney, Raleigh, 
Cromwell, Pitt, Clive, Nelson, Stephenson, Gladstone; South- 
ern Europe — Mohammed, Francis of Assisi, Loyola, Prince 
Henry, Isabella, Columbus, Lorenzo de'Medici, Michel Angelo, 
Galileo, Garibaldi ; Northern Europe — Robert Bruce, William 
of Orange, Henry Hudson, Gustavus Adolphus, Rembrandt, 
Peter the Great, Kossuth; America — John Smith, Miles Stand- 
ish, William Penn, La Salle, Patrick Henry, Franklin, Wash- 
ington, Daniel Boone, Lincoln, Lee. 

These names are suggested, not as a final selection to be 
rigorously adopted, but as indicating one way of arousing- 
interest and of conveying historical information at the age 
when ideas of time and place relations are only imperfectly 
developed, but when interest in individuals is keen and active. 
The list may be changed in toto, but the principle still be 
retained. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 517 

The plan for these two years (Grade III and Grade IV) implies 
that the object is to arouse interest; that the method used is 
to be wholly the oral one; that the stories are to be united 
with lessons given in language and in geography; that the 
selection of myths and stories should aim to give universal 
rather than particular notions, and that the teacher should 
have a sufficient acquaintance with history and literature to be 
able to decide wisely concerning the selection to be made. 

Grade V. — Greek and Eoman history to 800 A. D. circa. 

Grade VI. — Mediaeval and modern European history, from 
the close of the first period to the present time. 

Grade "FTi".— English history. 

Grade VIII. — American history. 

The reasons for recommending the order of subjects to be 
taken up from Grade Y through Grade VIII are the same as 
those given by the committee in the main body of the report 
and need not be repeated here. 

The reasons for recommending the preliminary survey of 
European history before taking up the same period in the high 
school are that the underlying principle is similar to one that 
is in successful operation in Germany — educational principles 
discovered by one group of instructors and successfully put 
into practice by them can be adapted to meet the needs of 
other groups of instructors without the necessity of redis- 
covery; that it gives a good basis for high school work, since 
it follows the law "that one obtains knowledge by adding to 
ideas which he already has — new ideas organically related to 
the old;" that the substitution of a brief course in European 
history for a portion of the American history now taught will 
conduce to a better appreciation of the important facts in 
American history, and that as a result the pupil will have a 
better understanding of the history of America after one year 
of special study given to it than he now has after two years' 
study without this preliminary acquaintance with European 
history; that it gives an outlook into the world of history and 
of literature to those who can not complete a high-school 
course, and thus gives them resources within themselves that 
must be of value in their future lives; that it would do some- 
thing to make fruitful what is now too often a barren waste — 
the curriculum of the primary and the grammar grades; that 
its adoption would do something to raise the educational and 
professional qualifications of teachers, since the knowledge 



518 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

required to carry it out would be more extensive than that 
demanded by the present curriculum; that through it some- 
thing would be done to unify the subjects in the curriculum, 
-which is now too often vague and formless; that since many 
schools in America now have a course similar to the one here 
advocated, it is a practical one. 

The plan of work in history here presented is suggested, 
not as being absolutely ideal in itself, but as one that more 
nearly approximates that ideal than the one often found in the 
public schools: it is suggested with full realization of the fact 
that it probably can not be at once adopted in extenso by a 
single school; it is recommended because of the belief that it 
is better to have an ideal toward which to work than to remain 
content with unsatisfactory conditions.' 

'Lack of space prevents the elaboration of the principles suggested in this report. A 
more detailed presentation of them may be found in History of Elementary Schools. 
Edncational Review, April, 1891 ; Unity in College Entrance History, Educational Review, 
September, 189C; History in the German Gymnasia, Appendix 111. below. 



Appendix III. 

HISTORY IN THE GERMAN GYMNASIA. 1 

By Lucy M. Salmon. 

The paper is largely based on a personal visit extending 
over three months' time and including 32 gymnasia in 18 dif- 
ferent places; in 23 of these gymnasia 70 classes in history 
were heard, having an aggregate attendance of about 1,500 
boys. It was the plan to select places differing widely in con- 
ditions, from small provincial towns to large commercial and 
educational centers, and also those representing quite diverse 
political and religious interests. In some cases all the gym- 
nasia in the city were visited; in some the work in every class 
in history was seen; in others the same class was seen in sev- 
eral successive lessons in history; the work of one class was 
visited in history and in other subjects, and also all of the 
classes in history taught by one instructor ; the same instructor 
was heard in other subjects as well, and different sections of 
the same class taught by different instructors — every possi- 
ble combination was made as regards town, school, instructor, 
and class. This has been supplemented by a careful study of 
the school laws and programmes of the twenty-six States 
making up the German Empire, including those of the twelve 
provinces tbat form the Kingdom of Prussia. Except for 
incurring the charge of generalizing from one particular, a 
visit to one school and the study of one programme would have 
sufficed. There are indeed variations in detail, but the funda- 
mental principles in the arrangement of the work in history are 
the same — a uniformity that is especially noteworthy in view 
of the contrast it presents to our own system, or lack of system. 
The result of this study gives a composite photograph of the 
work in history in the schools for boys, which bears a strik- 
ing likeness to each of the individual parts making up the 
photograph. 

1 This paper, prepared for the committee, was read at the annual meeting of the 
American Historical Association held at Cleveland, Ohio, December 28-30, 1897, and 
afterwards printed in the 18S7 Keport and in the Educational Review. 

519 



520 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

Tbe reign of Louis Philippe began without glory and ended 
without honor j but for one thing it is entitled to the grateful 
remembrance not alone of France, but of America as well. In 
1831 M. Cousin, holding a government commission, visited the 
schools of Prussia, Saxony, and Frankfort, and on his return 
published those celebrated reports which for the first time 
made the German system of education familiar in France and 
subsequently in this country. From that time to the present 
our interest in German education has been a growing one. 

It has, however, been naturally the German universities 
whose organization Americans have studied — the German 
schools have less often been visited, and their place in the 
educational system is less clearly seen. Just what this part 
is, however, must be briefly recalled in order to understand 
the place in the curriculum occupied by history. 

The German gymnasium, whether the gymnasium proper 
with its course based on the classics and mathematics, the 
real gymnasium which omits Greek from its curriculum, or the 
oberrealschule which omits both Latin and Greek, the German 
school, whatever its variety, takes the boy when nine years 
old, and at eighteen sends him to the university, the higher 
technical schools, or into business life with a well-rounded 
symmetrical education. 

This symmetrical education is made possible through the 
careful construction of the school curriculum. The curricu- 
lum is a sacred thing, not lightly formed or to be tampered 
with when made, for into it goes the best trained and most 
expert educational service that the State can command. The 
curriculum in every State is the same in the same class of 
schools, and the uniformity among the twenty- six different 
State systems is far greater than among the forty-five States 
of America. It may or it may not be due to the conscious 
influence of Herbart — in many places there is a positive dis- 
claimer of all such influence — but, whatever the cause, the 
result is everywhere a curriculum that gives a compact, artic- 
ulated, organic system in strong contrast to our own. The 
result may be in part attributed, in spite of disclaimers, to the 
influence of Herbart, and in part to the fact that the Germans, 
as individuals, are less prone than the Americans to fly off on 
tangents of their own, and consequently have a capacity for 
working together that shows itself as strongly in educational 
as in municipal affairs. The curriculum is a unit; it is com- 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 521 

plete in itself, but it represents at the same time one stage in 
the development of the educational system. This fact must 
never be lost sight of, or the corresponding fact that the 
American programme of studies presents an absolute contrast 
to the German Lehrplan. The American programme is often 
regarded as a convenient vehicle for conveying the instruction 
desired by interested parties. Does a State legislature believe 
that the schools exist for the purpose of implanting patriotism, 
they are forthwith commanded to teach American history; 
if a group of business men believe that the schools should 
have a bread-and-butter aim, stenography and typewriting are 
made compulsory; if one branch of the church considers that 
the schools exist for the purpose of teaching religion, the 
study of the catechism is demanded; if an association deems 
that it is the first duty of the schools to inculcate the princi- 
ples advocated by that association, it asks for the study of 
physiology with special reference to the injurious effects of 
alcoholic drinks. The American programme represents the 
idiosyncrasies of individuals, not the wisdom of the many. It 
must therefore be seen that the place occupied by history in 
the German gymnasia, unlike its place in the American schools, 
is given it because the most eminent educators of Germany 
have agreed upon the place it ought to have in the educational 
system. 

What, then, are the characteristic features of history instruc- 
tion in Germany, especially those that differ from instruction 
in history in America? 

Dr. Holmes was wont to say that it was necessary to begin 
a boy's education with the education of his grandfather. In a 
similar way, any discussion of history in the German schools 
must begin with the German boy — a boy much like other boys, 
but living in a military atmosphere, where obedience is the 
first law of men, as order is heaven's first law elsewhere — a 
boy who, from his earliest recollections, is taught that every 
one obeys some one else — ''Children obey their parents, the 
wife obeys her husband, the husband obeys the king, the king 
obeys God" — a boy who is taught respect for authority, but a 
boy who is also taught that self-control and self-knowledge 
are as much a part and an object of education as is the train- 
ing of the mind. Until the boy is ready for the university — 
that is, until he is 18 or 19 years old — he is a minor; he is so 
regarded by his instructors and he so regards himself. He is 



522 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

under a constant supervision that, to the American boy, would 
be intolerable; he is in the gymnasium to be taught, and it is 
not expected that before leaving the gymnasium he should 
express his persoual opinion on any subject under considera- 
tion. 1 Instruction thus seems to be freed from some of the 
questions of discipline that accompany instruction here, and 
the instructor is unhampered by the apparent necessity of sac- 
rificing legitimate drill to the immediate object of maintaining 
a specious interest. 

The German instructor thus finds at hand a military system 
that is of help in the method of instruction, and he also finds 
a programme of studies arranged by expert educators and 
unaffected by political or religious considerations; a pro- 
gramme the keynote of which is concentration — concentration 
of work, concentration of thought, concentration of time. 

The part, then, that history plays in the curriculum is not 
an independent one, but one correlated with other subjects. 
Yet the place that each subject has in this articulated system 
is clearly understood and defined. In historical instruction, 
according to the educational laws of Saxony, a knowledge of 
the epoch-making events in the history of the world, and of 
their mutual relation, origin, and development, is to be spe- 
cially sought. The Prussian programme of 1882 states the 
object to be "to arouse in the pupils respect for the moral 
greatness of men and nations, to make them conscious of their 
own imperfect insight, and to give them the ability to read 
understandingly the greatest historical classics." This posi- 
tion Prussia has modified by the programme of 1892 into one 
involving special emphasis on the development of Prussia's 
greatness and the centering of the new national life about her; 
but her former position is the one rather held by the other 
German States. History is thus to be an organic part of the 
school curriculum, but it is also to have a distinct definite 
aim of its own. That aim is to be the placing of high ideals 
before the boy, the development of his moral character through 
the study of these ideals; it is to be a part of "liberal culture 
and is to serve as a means of intellectual train ing." 

1 The director of one gymnasium said: "Our boys are not encouraged to speculate about 
what historians themselves do not know. ' Another remarked : "It is inconceivable that 
boys in the gymnasium sin uld discuss political questions about which mature men dis- 
agree." I did not hear a hoy asked his opinion on any subject in the .lass room, or a sin- 
gle boy ask a question; everything was apparently given and accepted on authority . 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 523 

The work in history in the gymnasium itself must be con- 
sidered under the two heads, subject-matter and method. 

As regards subject matter, the nine years may be divided 
into three groups, the first group comprising the first two 
years, the second the following four years, and the third the 
last three years. During the first two years the boy, then 
nine or ten years old, is given the legends from classical and 
German mythology. The next four years form a second group. 
The boy during this period is from eleven to fourteen years old, 
and lie begins a systematic study of Greek and Eoman history, 
followed by a study of mediaeval and modern history, often 
with special reference to the history of Germany. The last 
three, when the boy is from fifteen to eighteen years old, form 
the third group, and in this group he has a second course in 
classical, medineval, and modern history. 

This, then, gives us the three concentric circles of historical 
instruction of Germany. During the first circle of two years 
no attempt is made to give formal instruction in chronological 
sequence; the work is introductory to that of the subsequent 
course, and it is intended by it to bring before the imagina- 
tion of the boy in a series of vivid pictures the deeds of great 
heroes, to fill his thoughts with them, and thus to lay the 
foundation for the later more connected historical instruction. 1 

This systematic instruction begins with the third year in the 
gymnasium, and during the remainder of his course the work 
in history and geography forms the two regular concentric 
circles. The object in the first of these is to give a connected 
account of the origin and development of the great events in 
the world's history, and especially of the relation of Germany 
to these events. 2 The work of the four years, therefore, begins 
at the beginning, and comprises a study for one year of Greek 
and Roman history, with the addition of the little necessarily 
pertaining to it from the history of the Oriental peoples. The 
next two years — that is, the boy's fourth and fifth years in 
school — are given to mediaeval and early modern history; but 
mediaeval history is treated as predominantly German, and the 
theory that the history of the Middle Ages is, in reality, a 
history of Germany is commonly accepted. With the close of 
the Middle Ages the point of view is changed somewhat, since 

1 Prussian Lebrplau, 1S92, v 7- 

2 Die Sebulordnuiig fur die humanistischeu Gymnasieu iui Kiinigreieh Bayern, 1891, 
§14. 



524 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

modern history can not be treated from the distinctively Ger- 
man standpoint, as can the previous period. But if modern 
history can not be treated as world history, it is, at least, always 
regarded and treated from the European standpoint. 1 Espe- 
cially during the last of the four years is the material handled 
from the general European, not from the special German or 
Prussian, point of view. 2 Daring the second circle of system- 
atic study, or the third circle, if the introductory work is con- 
sidered, the boy, at the age of fifteen, begins "the second wand- 
ering through the broad field of history," but with the object of 
laying the foundations deeper, of giving a broader outlook, of 
understanding present conditions through their development 
in the past, of building upon the love of the fatherland that 
has been awakened in the earliest years a sense of personal 
responsibility to it, of inspiring high ideals and creating eth- 
ical standards. 3 Professor Jager has well pointed out 4 that 
every age has its special favorite ideas and prevailing interests, 
and that these necessarily affect the historical instruction in 
the higher schools. 5 To-day such interest is social and eco- 
nomic, aud it is, therefore, to be expected that social and 
economic questions shall be treated with a certain partiality, 
aud this is especially seen during the second review of histor- 
ical events. 

What is the difference in the point of view in the three sur- 
veys of history"? It may perhaps be said that in the first 
circle heroes, in the second, states — particularly the German 
state — in the third circle, the world, form the objective points. 
High ideals of action are the end sought in the first circle, a 
connected account of the great events in the world's history 
that of the second, a knowledge of the civilizing influences that 
have prevailed in the world's history that of the third. If 
the center of each circle is sometimes Germany, and if it is a 
part of the imperial theory that the radii of the circle should 
begin at the circumference and verge toward the center, it is 

1 Oskar Jager. Geschichte, 82-83. 
-'Ibid., 49. 

3 Das hbhere Schulweseu im Kiinigreiche Sachsen, 1889; Lehrplane und Leliraufgaben 
fur die hob even Schulen. Berlin, 1892. 

4 Geschichte, 74. 

5 This is illustrated by the interest taken during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- 
ries in dogmatic religious questions; at the close of the eighteenth century, in literary 
and aesthetic subjects ; during the early part of the present century, t lie time of the pre 
dominance of the Hegelian philosophy, iu the philosophy of history. The history of each 
period shows more or less clearly the prevailing interests of the age when it was written. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY" IN SCHOOLS. 525 

more often found in practice that the center forms only a start- 
ing point for the construction of the radii diverging to the 
circumference. Especially in German Switzerland is an appre- 
ciation found of the fact that it is unwise to distort history in 
order tc magnify Switzerland or to foster an exaggerated 
patriotism. In Germany itself, while there is acquiescence in 
the imperial theory that the cultivation of the national spirit 
should be a special aim of historical instruction, there is also 
a recognition of the fact, as Professor Kussell has pointed out, 
that the theory is pedagogically shortsighted, "that patriotism 
should be more than mere enthusiasm, more enduring than the 
frothy exuberance of spirits that arises from the contemplation 
of great deeds ; that love of country and of king depends upon 
a firm and unchangeable character." 1 If Sedan day is observed 
as an event marking a victory over a rival power, rather than 
as a day that means the unification of Germany, it is because 
that event is, as yet, necessarily regarded at short range ; if 
the day is universally celebrated throughout the German 
schools, it is because the consciousness is yet strong that it was 
the Prussian schoolmaster that won Alsace and Lorraine. That 
exalted patriotism that calls the whole world akin does not 
immediately follow a triumphant national victory, but Germany 
will soon look at those events of German history that concern 
her immediate present in their true perspective. 

What has the boy gained as a result of this threefold divi- 
sion of subject-matter into concentric circles? 

Compulsory education keeps him in school until he is 14 
years old — that is, until he has completed the introductory 
work and the first circle of systematic study of history. If 
circumstances then compel him to leave the gymnasium, as 
10 per cent of the German boys are obliged to do, 2 he has in 
hand such an outline of the great events in the world's history 
as ought to save him from premature or hasty judgments. 
But if he completes the gymnasial course he has gained not 
only this, but he has learned something of the deeper meaning 
of history. He has a knowledge of the art and literature of 
Greece that has rounded out his partial knowledge of these 
subjects gained through the Greek classics he has read; he 
understands the organization of the government of the Eomans 

'Hiatory and Geography in the Higher Schools of Germany, The School Review, May, 
1897. 
2 The School Review, October, 1897. 



526 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

and what has been contributed to the civilization of the world 
by that eminently practical people; the Middle Ages are not 
to him dark ages, for he understands the place in that period 
occupied by the Holy Eoman Empire; modern history means 
to him not the unrelated history of Germany alone, but it 
means the study of new conditions made possible through the 
discovery of America and the industrial development of the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; he compares the centraliza- 
tion of power under Louis XIV with the low, inorganic form 
of political life in Germany during the corresponding period, 
and learns the odds against which Germany has struggled in 
reaching her present position. He has, from the time he was 
9 years old, had constantly put before him for nine years these 
developments, and has been made to realize "that mankind is 
an ethical whole." The method has been called one of con- 
centric circles, but is rather one of an ever-ascending spiral, 
from the apex of which an outlook over the past is obtained. 
To change the figure, the three surveys are the three readings 
through which any legislative measure must pass before it 
becomes an act accomplished. As the three readings have 
given ample time for discussion, for sifting essentials from 
nonessentials, for presenting all possible arguments for and 
against a proposed measure, so the three surveys must leave 
in the boy's mind a residuum of all that is best in the world's 
history, and this residuum becomes his abiding possession. 

The question naturally arises as to how far, in the selection 
of the subject-matter, the psychological condition of the boy 
is considered, and how far both matter and treatment are 
adapted to this condition. It must have been inferred, from 
what has already been said, that this psychological condition 
has not only never been lost sight of, but that it has been 
made the basis of arrangement at every step of the way. '« The 
primary condition of historical perception is the readiness to 
think or to feel the past as present," says Professor Jager. 1 
This ability to feel the past, the development of the historical 
imagination, is the object of the instruction in the first part 
of the course. During the second division of the course, "the 
instruction as a whole," says Professor Jager, "must give the 
boy forceful suggestions, strong impulses; must work from 
different sides for the one end of giving a check and a coun- 
terpoise to the distracting, self-willed, and disintegrating ten- 
dencies that beset this time of life."- With the broadening 

1 Gescliichte, 9. s Ibid., 28. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 527 

out of the boy's sympathies and interests, he is brought, dur- 
ing the latter part of his course, face to face with those com 
plex questions of present interest for the consideration of 
which there is needed a mind stored with knowledge, and the 
boy learns "a respect for knowledge for the knowledge's own 
sake. 1 

The importance that is attached to historical instruction is 
evident not only from the care with which the course of study 
is planned, but from the time allotted to it. This is an aver- 
age of three hours per week, including the time given geogra- 
phy, during the entire nine years' course, a total of twenty- 
seven hours during the course, or one-ninth of the entire time 
throughout the course is given to these subjects. 2 

But it must not be inferred that the historical instruction 
the boy receives is confined to the three hours per week of 
formal instruction in this line. Extreme specialization has no 
place in a German gymnasium. Instead of each person imagin- 
ing that he has preempted a portion, large or small, of the field 
of knowledge, and keeping jealous watch lest someone else 
trespass on his preserves, each instructor seeks to bind his 
subject with every other. In the hours allotted to religion the 
boys read from the Greek New Testament; and Oriental his- 
tory, as well as church history, is taught, though these are in the 
history classes proper. Herodotus and Livy are not regarded 

"Ibid., 07. 

2 The following list will indicate the amount of time allotted to history in the different 
gymnasia — 

A-ltenburg, Friedrichs-Gymnasium 27 

Berlin, Konigstadtisches Gymnasium 20 

Bonn, Oberrealschule 32 

Bremen, Gymnasium 34 

Brunswick, Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum 20 

Frankfurt, Goethe Gymnasium 30 

Freiburg, Oberrealschule - 27 

Hamburg, Gelehrlonschule des Johauneums 28 

Heidelberg, Gymnasium 21 

Jena, Gymnasium Carolo- Alexandrinum - 28 

Landeshut, Realgynasium - 21 

Leipzig, JS'icolai-Gymnasiuiu - 30 

Magdeburg, Guericke-Oberrealschule . 30 

Munich, Konigliches Maximilians-Gymnasium 25 

Neu-Strelitz, Gymnasium Carolinum 25 

Oldenburg, Grossheraigliches Gymnasium 27 

Rudolstadt, Fiirstlicb.es Gymnasium 20 

Strassburg, Protestantisches Gymnasium 25 

Stuttgart, Eberhard-Lud wigs-Gymnasium 25 

Weimar, Wilhelm-Ern3tisch.es Gymnasium 28 

It is thus seen that while the general average is 27 hours, 11 gymnasia have 27 or more 
hours, while only !) have less. 



528 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

as mere vehicles for teaching Greek and Latin construction, 
but are taught as Greek and Roman history, and much of 
English and French history is taught through these languages. 

But even this correlation of history with every other subject 
is not all. One may study the programmes and visit classes, 
and yet not understand or see clearly all of the influences at 
work that make for history. Maps, charts, collections of 
pictures freely used ; busts of all the authors read in the school ; 
quotations from great men inscribed on the walls of class rooms; 
the memorizing of historical poems and passages from historical 
dramas ; the observance of national and historic holidays ; most 
of all, frequent excursions to points of historical interest — all 
this is history, all these are influences that make history un- 
consciously grow into the boy and become a part of his very 
self. History is developed in him, he is developed through it. 

The subject of msthod of instruction must not be omitted, 
although it will demand but a brief consideration. 

The method is in essence the same throughout the course. 
In the first part it is story-telling, pure and simple; in the 
second part it is pure narration; in the third part it becomes 
more formal and resembles somewhat a college lecture. Dur- 
ing the first of the hour the class is questioned on what has 
been narrated during the previous lesson; then comes the 
narration of fresh material, and, with the younger boys, the 
hour is closed with questions on what has just been narrated. 
The theory is that the. boy learns best from the living voice, 
that thus his interest is aroused and maintained, and that 
history in this way becomes to him a living, life giving 
presence. The work of the teacher is supplemented by the 
use of a text-book (Leitfadeu), bat this contains only the bar- 
est outline of the events and is in no sense a text-book in the 
American usage of the term. The instructor can not expect 
that the boy will spend more than fifteen or twenty minutes in 
preparation of his history work, and therefore he is practi- 
cally restricted to the use of the narrative method. It is the 
German theory that an excessive amount of outside study 
should not be demanded or given ; that it is best for the boys 
to get as much education from each other as possible; that, 
since one plans to become a lawyer, another a physician, a 
third a business man, and a fourth a teacher, each should talk 
over with the other his plans for the future, and thus become 
educated in ways not reached by the school. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 529 

The narrative method does not lend itself easily, especially 
in the higher grades, to securing some of the best results that 
are secured in the best American schools. It must seem to 
Americans to fail in developing the power of independent 
judgment, and to afford no opportunity for the exercise of 
that faculty known in the child as curiosity and in the man 
as research. The boy absorbs and assimilates, but the cre- 
ative faculty lies dormant. That this should be so, however, 
is a part of the German theory of education. But the German 
method does secure certain admirable ends. On the positive 
side it results in concentration of attention, alertness of mind, 
quickness of apprehension, and an enviable ability to grasp 
the salient features of a subject considered as a whole. The 
double and triple course gives constant opportunity for com- 
parison, especially during the last survey, and this basis for 
comparison and the constant advantage taken of it are one of 
the most valuable parts of the method. On its negative side 
the German method has the advantage that it leaves little 
room for crudity of opinion or for generalizations from insuffi- 
cient data. 

The study of history in the German gymnasia thus shows 
seven distinctive features: First, the entire field of history is 
covered in three distinct surveys ; second, the work in history 
is correlated Avith every other subject in the curriculum and 
in a sense becomes its unifying force; third, ample time is 
given for its consideration, and it receives the same serious 
treatment as do other subjects in the course; fourth, the 
division of material and the method of treatment are based on 
the boy's psychological development; fifth, the narrative 
method of instruction gives the boy a vivid impression of 
reality of the past; sixth, the course is complete in itself, and 
at the same time it forms an ideal preparation for university 
work; seventh, every teacher of history is an absolute master 
of the subject taught. 

What are the lessons to be learned by Americans from this 
examination of historical instruction in the German gymnasia"? 

The first great lesson we should all do well to heed is this : 
That the course in history serves the double purpose of being- 
complete. in itself and of being an ideal preparation for univer- 
sity work. 

The course is complete in itself; because, if the boy does not 
go beyond the gymnasium, or if he leaves at the end of the 
hist 98 34 



530 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

sixth year in school, be has gained a wide outlook into the 
future because of this thorough study of the past; he has 
gained a proper historical perspective and be has learned tbat 
"hinter dem Gebirge sind audi Leute." He has resources 
within himself that must contribute not only to the upbuild- 
ing of his own character, but that must redound to the advan- 
tage of the community in which his lot is cast. How great an 
advantage this broad outlook is can be seen by comparing the 
course in history in the gymnasia with that of the normal 
schools, where only German history is taught. One can but 
feel that the young men who are to be the teachers in the 
volksschule are losing much, that the volksschule are losing 
much through them, when the historical horizon is bounded by 
Germany. Such minds must, in middle life, be stunted and 
dwarfed because in early years they have lacked that mental 
and spiritual inspiration that the study of the largest life must 
give. Equally stunted and dwarfed must be the minds of our 
own American boys and girls when they leave school at the 
end of the grammar grade with a knowledge, insufficient at 
best, of only American history. It must indeed be said that 
he who knows only American history does not at all know that 
history. "The profounder our study of ourselves," says Pro- 
fessor Sloane, "the stronger will grow our conviction of the 
organic relation between our own history and that of the 
world." 1 American history is in the air — a balloon sailing in 
midheaven — unless it is anchored fast to European history. 
It is no more true to say that American history begins in 1492 
than it is true to say that a man's life begins when he goes into 
business for himself. English history does not begin with the 
reign of William III, or French history with the Third Republic, 
or German history with the establishment of the present Empire. 
A new stage of development in each country is marked by these 
events, and the development of Europe on the Kew World soil 
is but a corresponding one. America, like Europe, is the heir 
of all the ages, and the American boy has the right to enter 
into his inheritance. The great demand in industrial life to-day 
is for such a change in methods of work as will have regard to 
the effects of work on the laborer rather than the results on the 
product. To the attainment of this end the work of William 
Morris and of John Euskin has been directed, and to the 
attainment of a similar end must the work of educators tend. 

1 History and Democracy, American Historical Review, I, 22. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 531 

How disastrous this restricted view of the past may be 
on our political, industrial, aud educational growth is easily 
imagined when it is recalled that it was estimated, in 1886, that 
80 per cent of the pupils in the public schools never reach the 
high school. 1 Of those who pass through the high school but 
a small proportion enter college. But it is not only possible, 
it is more than probable, that even this small percentage who 
go through the high school, or through college, will complete 
their school or college life knowing nothing of historical con- 
ditions or developments. A man with this lack of preparation 
may enter Congress and legislate on financial matters in abso- 
lute ignorance of the history of finance; he legislates on labor 
questions with no knowledge of the agrarian difficulties of 
Rome, the peasants' rebellions of the Middle Ages, or the 
national workshops of Louis Blanc. He legislates gold-stand- 
ard educators out of office at the West, and silver advocates 
out of office in the East, not knowing that for four hundred 
years Luther aud the Wartburg have stood for independence 
of judgment and the search for truth. Not only is he lacking 
in the actual knowledge that history affords, but he lacks still 
more that mental training that history gives in analysis, com- 
parison, classification; in holding the judgment in suspense 
until all sides of a question have been presented. The Ger- 
man boy is given both a body of facts and a mental training 
that ought to keep him from superficial judgments or hasty 
conclusions. 

But the special object of the German gymnasial course is 
to prepare for the university. 2 And here, in the case of the 
boy who enters the university, as in the case of the boy who 
does not, the German arrangement of historical work seems 
superior to our own. The university knows precisely what 
work in history has been done, and therefore it can assume 
this admirable preparation and shape its advanced courses 
accordiugly. But the American university or college makes 
its entrance requirement in history in deference to the anti- 
quated idea that preparation in history should be the one that 
will most assist the study of Latin and Greek, aud that every 
boy should know something of the history of his own country. 
The boy therefore studies American history in the grammar 

1 F. N. Thorpe, The Study of History in American Colleges, 232, 233. 

2 "If one seeks to set forth in a word the real specific purpose of gymnasial training, it 
is clearly to prepare for the university." — Oskar Jager, Geschichte, 4. 



532 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

grades, and Greek and Eoman history in the high school — an 
arrangement of studies radically wrong, because false chrono- 
logically and false in principle. On such a basis it is impos- 
sible to build up a systematic course of history in the college 
or the university without doing in the college a part of the 
work that should have been done before entrance. "The larger 
universities," says Professor Sloane, in speaking of American 
institutions, "have an imposing array of historical chairs, but 
they do not demand as a condition of entrance to their lecture 
rooms a thorough knowledge of general history." 1 College 
students everywhere must feel the irrelevancy as well as the 
inadequacy of their work in history before entering college, 
when considered as a preparation for that college work. 

This conclusion must follow: The work in history in Ameri- 
can schools will never be on a rational basis until, as in Ger- 
many, it recognizes the double purpose that history in these 
schools is to serve; until it is so organized as to give the boy 
or girl who does not go to college a well-rounded conception of 
the epoch-making events in the world's history; until it plans 
its college entrance requirements in history with reference to 
the college work in history; until it makes the course of his- 
tory in the schools identical for those who do, and for those 
who do not, go to college; until it correlates the work done in 
history with the work of every other subject in the school 
curriculum. 

1 History and democracy, American Historical Beview, I, 18. 



Appendix IV. 

HISTORY IN FRENCH LYCEES. 1 

By Charles H. Haskins. 

In France, as elsewhere, history is a comparatively recent 
addition to the subjects of the secondary curriculum. Long 
taught simply as an unimportant adjunct of the ancient lan- 
guages, it is only in the course of the present century, and 
largely for the purpose of stimulating patriotism, that it has 
gained the right to an independent place in secondary schools. 
The desire to develop patriotic emotion by familiarity with the 
nation's past still occupies in France, as in Germany, an im- 
portant place in the minds of secondary teachers; but a 
broader conception of the aims of historical study has spread 
in recent years and found its expression in the official instruc- 
tions issued in connection with the course of study. History, 
they declare, contributes to the education of the mind by ex- 
ercising the memory, developing the imagination, and training 
the judgment. It contributes to moral education by cultivat- 
ing the love of truth and preparing youth for their civic duties. 
"To give the pupil an exact idea of the successive civiliza- 
tions of the world and definite knowledge of the formation 
and growth of France; to show him the action of the world 
on our country and of our country on the world; to teach him 
to render to all peoples their just dues, to widen the horizon 

1 The following report does not profess to represent the resnlts of a detailed examina- 
tion of a considerable number of schools. The information upon which it is based has 
been gathered in the course of two visits to Prance, partly from official programmes and 
other printed sources, partly from observation of classes in lycees and courses for the 
training of teachers, and partly from conversation with French professors who possess 
special familiarity with the conditions in secondary schools. I regret that the number of 
classes visited was not larger ; but there is great uniformity of system and administration 
in Trench education, and 1 am informed by competent authority that wider observation 
would not have materially modified the account here given. 

The official programmes and instructions are published by Delalain at Paris. The 
brief appendix on "The secondary teaching of history in Prance" in the Introduction to 
the Study of History by Langlois and Seignobos is excellent, and many of the suggestions 
will he found valuable outside of France as well. Altamira's discussion of history in 
secondary schools in his Ensenanza de la Historia (chapters 8 and 9) has much to say of 
Prance. 

533 



534 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

of his mind, and finally to leave him in possession, not only of 
an understanding of the present condition of his country and 
of the world, but also of a clear notion of his duties as a 
Frenchman and as a man — such is the function of history in 
education." ' 

The French system of public secondary instruction com- 
prises two types of schools — the lycees, schools maintained and 
directed by the central government, of which there are now 
about 100 distributed throughout France; and the colleges, 
local high schools, which receive some assistance from the 
general treasury, and are usually less completely equipped than 
the lycees. For the purposes of the present report, however, 
the two institutions may be classed together, as the pro- 
gramme of studies is the same in both. The regular course 
of the lycee covers ten years, but as the studies of the first 
three years are identical with those of the elementary schools, 
the pupil does not enter the lycee proper until he arrives at 
the class of the sixieme, where he begins Latin if a classical 
student, or German if he be a "modern." This stage is ordi- 
narily reached at the age of 11, so that the boy who spends 
seven years in the lycee will complete the course and present 
himself for his bachelor's examination at 18. To state the 
matter in American terms, the French boy spends in the lycee 
the period that the American boy spends in the high school, 
plus the last year or two years of the grammar grade and the 
first year or two of college, but he reaches the close of his 
lycee course about two years earlier than the American youth 
comes to the corresponding point in his education. 2 

Throughout tbe whole course of the lycee, as well as in the 
three preliminary years, an hour and a half a week is devoted 
to history and an hour to the related subject of geography, 
except in the last year, where from two to four hours are 

1 Lavisse, A propos de nos ecoles, 81 ; instructions concernant l'enseignement secondaire 
classique, xlvii-1. Tbe portion of these instructions which relates to history was pre- 
pared by Lavisse, and may be found, somewhat abridged, in his A propos de nos ecoles, 
77-107. 

2 In what is said above, and in this account generally, the institutions for boys are taken 
as the type. Tbe secondary schools for girls have a course of five years, divided into 
two "periods,'' and history has an allotment of two hours a week throughout. In 
the first period, for pupils between 12 and 15, the programme covers the history of 
France, with "summary notions of general history." In the second period a survey of 
the history of civilization is given. While in general the same methods of instruction 
prevail in both classes of schools, their application to girls' schools is necessarily condi- 
tioned by the more general character of the course in history and the absence of classical 
studies from the curriculum. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 535 

given to history. The total number of hours varies from fif- 
teen to twenty-two, according to year and course, decreasing 
in the later years of the classical course, hut remaining undi- 
minished in the modern, so that the proportion of time devoted 
to history, which is but 7 J per cent in the lower years, rises to 
twenty or even more in the last year. The total number of hours 
of history for the entire ten years is sixteen and one-half for 
classical and literary and thirteen and one-half for scientific 
students. In the elementary classes the historical instruction 
is necessarily of an informal character, and consists of bio- 
graphical narration in the first year, followed by a two years' 
survey of the history of France studied biographically. Then 
with the grammar division of the lyc'*e begins the systematic 
and continuous study of the world's history. Three years are 
devoted to the history of the Orient, Greece, and Borne, and 
the remaining four years are occupied with the history of 
mediaeval and modern Europe, studied with special reference 
to France and divided into the following yearly blocks : 375 to 
1270, 1270 to 1610, 1610 to 1789, and 1789 to the present. This 
is the programme for classical students. For the " modern" 
course, which is one year shorter, Oriental and Greek history 
are combined in one year, and in the last year additional 
instruction is offered in the general history of art and civiliza- 
tion and in the elements of civil government and political 
economy. 

The most important feature of this programme is that it 
affords a comprehensive survey of the world's history in its 
chronological development from the earliest period down to 
the present. In contrast to the two "concentric circles" of 
the German gymnasium the pupil is taken over the field but 
once, so that a fuller treatment is possible in any one year; 
but the thorough review of the German system is lost, much 
to the detriment of the subjects studied early in the course. 
In other respects the general distribution of time is much the 
same as in the Prussian programme, except that in the one 
case it is France, in the other Germany and Prussia, that 
forms the center of study in mediaeval and modern times. The 
existing arrangement seems on the whole to be popular in 
France, though some prefer the German "circles," and others 
demand for history, at some stage in the course, the prepon- 
derant place that rhetoric and philosophy now have in the last 
two years, urging that in no other way can the disciplinary 



536 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

value of history be realized, as a counterpoise to tbe formal 
studies of language and mathematics, and the only study 
which, by dealing with concrete social facts, brings the pupil 
into proper relations with his civic environment. 

Besides prescribing the general character of the course in 
history, the official programme contains an outline of the top- 
ics to be studied in each class, accompanied by brief sugges- 
tions as to the mode of treatment. The plan of each year's 
work is drawn up with considerable care, but it is designed to 
serve as a guide to the teacher rather than narrowly to control 
him. 

While there has been a noticeable improvement in the course 
of study in history since the middle of the century, the methods 
of instruction are still largely tinged with the spirit of formal- 
ism and routiue inherited from the Second Empire. The 
lycee is still a semi-military institution, which has much of the 
appearance of barracks, and calls its pupils to class by the 
beating of a drum ; and while professors are now free to dress 
and wear their beards as they choose, they have not all grasped 
the full consequences of the idea that the pupil is to be trained 
as a citizen aud not as a subject. Indeed, pedagogical prob- 
lems in general have received comparatively slight attention 
in France, and questions of what to teach and how to teach 
in history have been very little considered. A. common prac- 
tice is to dictate a brief summary of the hour's work, expand 
this into a lecture while the pupils take notes, and question 
them at the beginning of the next hour on the lecture and 
some pages of the text book. The professor speaks from a 
raised platform, and the small blackboard is reserved for his 
personal use only. The scholars usually show interest, and 
they may be even required to prepare supplementary papers, 
but their attitude is largely passive, and the system lacks the 
advantages of the steady German drill on hard facts or the 
freer use of material characteristic of good American teaching. 
These conditions are, however, beginning to pass away as the 
professors who have grown old under the dictation system 
give place to younger men. It is coming to be realized that 
the pupil should get his fundamental facts from a text rather 
than from the instructor's lecture, and that the time spent in 
the class-room need not be wholly given up to the alternate rep- 
etition of statements by teacher and pupil. In addition to the 
text-book, classes may now have at their disposal excellent 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 537 

illustrative matter, sueli as is contained in the Albums histori- 
ques of the Middle Ages, edited by Parmentier, and the Lec- 
tures Historiques l designed for supplementary reading. In 
one way and another fresh life is being infused into the study 
of history, and in some schools remarkable results have already 
been attained in securing the pupils' active participation in 
the work. 2 

The professors of history and geography in lycees — the sub- 
jects are usually combined — are appointed on the basis of a 
competitive examination. After having taken his baccalau- 
reate degree the candidate must continue his work for two 
years, studying Latin, Greek, and French, as well as his spe- 
cialty, until he receives the licence. Then comes a further year 
spent largely in the writing of a thesis, followed by a year's 
strenuous preparation for the final test, the agregation, for 
which the competition is very keen. As the examination bears 
upon the candidate's ability to present a subject before classes, 
as well as upon his knowledge of history and geography, the 
preliminary courses include not only lectures and seminaries, 
but numerous practical exercises in teaching, under the super- 
vision and criticism of professors and fellow-students. The 
necessary j)reparation of a teacher of history accordingly con- 
sists of a substantial classical education as a foundation and a 
period of special study of at least four years spent at one of 
the universities or at the Ecole Normale Superieure, the whole 
tested by a rigid examination. 

Such, in brief outline, are the general features of historical 
instruction in the secondary schools of France. The French 
have realized the importance of history as an essential element 
in the secondary curriculum, they have made provision for its 
systematic and continuous study throughout the whole of the 
school course, and they have established a system which 
assures the selection of well-trained teachers. In these 
respects we can profit by their example; but at present we have 

1 These are published by Hachette. The three volumes for the ancient period consist 
of an interesting series of sketches of Egyptian and Assyrian life from the competent 
hand of Maspero, and excellent accounts of the public and private life of the Greeks and 
Romans by Guiraud. The latter volumes are made up of well-chosen selections from 
modern historians, grouped according to the programme. The extracts from sources 
contained in the earlier editions have now been omitted, as they did not seem adapted to 
this stage of the pupil's development. 

2 See in the Revue Universitaire, June 15, 1896, the examples printed by Seignohos of 
written work done in a small college in the west of France, and notably the careful and 
intelligent comparisons of various ancient and modern institutions. 



538 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

little to learn from their methods of instruction beyond the 
suggestions that may be derived from their clear and well- 
ordered text-books ' and from the arrangement of topics in the 
programme, which Matthew Arnold declared no educated man 
could read " without profit — without being reminded of gaps 
in his knowledge and stimulated to fill therm" 2 We must, 
however, remember that it is only in recent years that histori- 
cal studies even in the universities have been placed upon a 
substantial basis in France, so that it is too soon to expect the 
best results in secondary teaching. Already there are indica- 
tions that as the possibilities of historical instruction become 
more generally recognized and the improvements in higher 
education make themselves more widely felt in the schools, it 
may be well worth the while of American teachers to watch the 
progress of historical studies in France; for in spite of all the 
differences in conditions in the two countries the fundamental 
problem of the secondary teacher of history is the same in 
France as in America, namely, how to make the study of his- 
tory tell most effectively for the general culture and the civic 
training of the future citizens of a great democracy. In solving 
this problem we shall need all the experience of both sides of 
the Atlantic. 

1 The Precis de Fhistoire moderne of Michelet, once so popular, has gone out of use, 
and the famous school histories of Duruy are passing. A scholarly series is appearing 
under the editorship of Monod; the volume by Bemont and Monod on the Middle Ages is 
excellent, though somewhat beyond the grasp of the boys of 14 for -whom it was written. 
The text-books of Seignobos on the Orient, Greece, ami Rome, published by Colin, are 
very suggestive, and deserve to bo better known in America ; see particularly the Sup- 
plements a l'usage des professeurs, issued in connection with the volumes on the Orient 
and Greece. 

2 A French Eton and Schools and Universities in France (edition of 1892), 375. 



Appendix V. 

HISTORY IN ENGLISH SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
By George L. Fox. 

The well-known chaotic character of the English system of 
education makes it difficult to give a satisfactory account of 
the scope aud methods of teaching history in English second- 
ary schools. There is great lack of system and of uniformity of 
method. In France and Germany, order and symmetry pre- 
vail in the educational system, as it is controlled and deter- 
mined by the State. A reasonable uniformity therefore results, 
and whatever assertions can be safely made about a few repre- 
sentative schools are likely to be true of most of the schools. 
In England, on the contrary, the secondary schools are almost 
entirely under private control, aud are generally free from 
State supervision. Indeed, the secondary school supported 
wholly or partly by public taxation and under the control of 
the State and local governments, like the high school in the 
United States or the lycee in France or the gymnasium in 
Germany, does not exist in Great Britain, although some 
secondary-school subjects are taught in the higher grade board 
schools aud the evening continuation schools. 

When English secondary schools are discussed in this report, 
the expression is to be understood as referring chiefly to the 
so-called-public schools of England, of which Winchester, Eton, 
Harrow, and Rugby are the familiar type. These institutions 
are, in most cases, endowed schools, controlled by a board of 
governors, in which the course of study and the methods of 
teaching are determined by the head master. The pupils, 
when they enter these schools, are usually between 12 aud 16 
years of age, and they have received their previous education 
either from private tutors, in local grammar schools, or, more 
commonly, in small boarding schools, scattered over England, 
called preparatory schools, which are private venture scbools — 
that is, are owned by private individuals. In these schools 
they have usually studied the elementary English history and, 
to some degree, Greek aud Roman history in the same way. 

539 



540 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

There is another reason, also, why it is not easy to give an 
exact account of the teaching of history iu the English second- 
ary schools. That is, because of the difficulty which the visitor 
has iu seeing the teacher actually at work in his class room. 
The visitor to French or German schools, if he has the proper 
authorization from the State authority, finds at once ready 
entrance to every class-room. But no such "open sesame" 
makes easy the pathway of the visitor to the English second- 
ary schools. There seems to be an unwritten law that an 
English master's form room is his castle, and it is not an easy 
thing to see the actual work of teaching. The writer of this 
report saw less than a dozen recitations in history in English 
schools, and the statements which are made are based on such 
limited inspection, the perusal of courses of study and exami- 
nation papers, and on conversation with different teachers of 
history. While the course of study and methods are largely 
determined by the head master, he is limited in his decisions 
by the requirements of the higher educational institutions, for 
which most of the pupils are preparing. The English public 
school is commonly divided into two departments — the clas- 
sical side and the modern side — which correspond, roughly, to 
the classical and scientific courses in our schools. The ulti- 
mate aim of the boy on the classical side is entrance to the 
universities of Oxford or Cambridge. The goal of the boy 
on the modern side can not be so definitely stated, but it 
is either business life, the engineering and scientific profes- 
sions, or the army colleges. This last class, who intend to be 
officers in the army, are a considerable proportion in the boys 
on the modern side, and their needs are especially recognized 
by a subdivision in the later years of this course called "the 
army class." The limitations which are likely to govern the 
course of study of the army class are the requirements im- 
posed by the Government for admission to the military col- 
leges of Woolwich and Sandhurst, one of which educates 
officers for the artillery and engineering, the other for the in- 
fantry and cavalry branches of the service. Among these 
requirements English history only finds a place as an optional 
subject, for which the maximum allowance is 2,000 marks in a 
total of 14,000. 

While in the secondary schools of England the State has 
no direct influence iu determining the course of study, the in- 
fluence of the universities iu this respect is most important 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 541 

and effective. This influence is most directly exerted through 
what is known as the Oxford and Cambridge schools exam- 
ination board, which is made up of representatives of both 
universities. This board conducts examinations at the close 
of the school year at most of the leading schools in England 
and issues certificates of proficiency to those who have success- 
fully passed the examinations. These higher certificates give 
exemption, under certain conditions, from the earlier examina- 
tions in the university course, known as "Smalls" at Oxford 
and " The Little-go " at Cambridge. The subjects of the exam- 
ination are classified in four groups: (1) A language group, 
including four subjects — Greek, Latin, French, German; (2) a 
mathematics group, divided into two subjects; (3) an English 
group, divided into scripture knowledge, English, and history, 
and (4) a science group, divided into six subjects. 

A candidate is usually required to pass in four subjects in 
not less than three groups. If he offers history, he may choose 
between Greek, Eoman, and English history. The whole field 
of each country's history is not necessarily included. Often a 
period covering less than three centuries is prescribed, together 
with a special knowledge of a smaller period included within it. 
In 1897 the general period in Greek history was to 323 B. C, 
while the special period extended from 403 B. C. to 362 B. C. 
In Boman history the general period was from 72 B. C. to 180 
A. D., while special knowledge was required of the period from 
14 A. D. to 96 A. D. In English history the examination cov- 
ered from 1485 to 1660, with a special knowledge of the period 
from 1555 to 1603. These specific instructions as to periods to 
be studied are changed every two or three years, but seldom 
is a period of English history prescribed later than 1815. The 
two points to be noted in these requirements are, first, that 
the shorter period for study is included in the longer period, 
and, second, that in each subject the examination covers only 
a portion of the nation's history. 

The colleges at both the universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge also endeavor to strengthen the instruction of history 
at the schools by establishing history scholarships, which yield 
from $250 to $400 a year to the successful candidates. These 
scholarships are either offered by single colleges or by two or 
three colleges combined. As is well known, this is a method 
characteristic of the English universities for promoting interest 
in any branch of learning, and serves to introduce into the 



542 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

schools a tendency to have a promising pupil in the upper 
classes specialize upon some subject for which he has a strong 
bent. The two most prominent of the Oxford colleges in 
awarding history scholarship are Balliol and New College who 
hold the same examination for the award of history scholarship. 

The examination for this purpose held on November 1G 
1897, consisted of (1) an essay written in the examination on 
some historical subject; (2) two language papers showing 
candidate's knowledge of Latin, Greek, French, or German; 
(3) a general paper; (4) ts\ o papers either in ancient history or 
in mediaeval history (including English history), or in the 
history of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries 
(including English history), at the option of the candidate. The 
regulations prescribed that the knowledge required for the gen- 
eral paper could be obtained from such books as the following: 
Guizot's Civilization in Europe, Hallam's Middle Ages (chap- 
ter IX), Bagehot's English Constitution, Maine's Ancient 
Law, Macaulay's Essays, and Walker's Political Economy. 
These books, naturally, a successful candidate would be 
expected to have read thoroughly, although one of the Balliol 
examiners told me that it was not wholly acquaintance with 
books but signs of promise shown by the candidate that 
determined the award. Most stress is laid upon the essay and 
general papers, which test natural ability. It should be said 
that these scholarships at Oxford are open to all candidates 
who have not been in residence more than eight terms, or two 
years ; so that a candidate fresh from a public school may 
compete for a scholarship with students who have been for 
more than a year at the university. But still a few boys in 
the highest forms of the best schools will usually be found in 
training for these scholarships. They will receive especial 
attention in history work from one of the masters, will be 
excused from some other subjects in order to give time to col- 
lateral reading, in which they are tested from time to time by 
the special master. 

The certificate examination and the scholarship examination 
illustrate the two classes of pupils whose wants are considered 
in the colleges and schools of England, viz, the average pupil 
and the pupil of unusual ability in any direction. Because of 
this distinction there exist, side by side, at the universities, 
the pass and the honor examinations. Of course the needs of 
the latter class are not considered except iu the higher forms 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 543 

of the school, but there they are very distinctly considered. 
Small classes of able pupils receive special instruction to fit 
them for the scholarship contests in different subjects. The 
eagerness to win these scholarships and thus to gain distinc- 
tion forms a powerful incentive to earnest and wide reading in 
history, although, in the opinion of some critics, the scholar- 
ship system is one of the baneful features of English educa- 
tion. These two classes of pupils must be borne in mind in 
considering the teaching of history in English schools. 

With regard to the held of history that is covered in the 
schools, the course of study in most schools includes, on the 
classical side at least, Greek history, Eoman history, and Eng- 
lish history. In most cases the pupils will give at least one 
hour a week to history throughout the course, from the age of 
12 to 19. A boy who has passed through all the forms of the 
secondary school will very likely have taken up these subjects 
twice, first in an elementary way with a brief text-book, such 
as Gardiner's Outlines of English History or Ransome's smaller 
book; then, at a later stage of the course, comes a more thor- 
ough treatment of the subject, with a more extensive text-book 
and possibly collateral reading. 

Of course the chief object of the elementary course should 
be not only learning of the main facts of history, but also an 
awakening of interest in the subject, which creates a thirst for 
individual study. Whether these ends are realized depends 
very much upon the character of the teaching and the enthu- 
siasm of the teacher. Haileybury College, in Hertfordshire, 
one of the youngest and less known public schools, has won 
especial distinction in this respect through two of the masters 
who are keenly interested in teaching the world's life of the 
past. The lecture room is fitted with all necessary appliances 
for using the stereopticon in the daytime. Thousands of slides 
have been made by these masters from photographs of places, 
costumes, relics, armor, weapons, etc., and authentic illustra- 
tions in books, such as those in Gardiner's History of England 
or the illustrated edition of Green. Thus the imagination of 
the boys is stimulated and the past is made to Vive before their 
eyes. 

Two dangers of this method they seem to have avoided at 
Haileybury. One is the disposition of a live boy "to take 
advantage of the darkness necessitated by the use of the lan- 
tern to riot or to sleep;" the other is to look upon it as a 



544 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

pleasant diversion and amusement for the hour only, leaving 
no permanent absorption of knowledge in the pupil's mind. 
At Haileybury the pupils are required to hand in reports of 
the lectures, and their knowledge is tested by viva voce ques- 
tioning. The same method is utilized with the higher forms, 
where the history of the French Eevolution is illustrated with 
contemporary portraits and caricatures thrown upon the screen. 
I doubt if in any school in the world so extensive and efficient 
use of the stereopticon in history teaching is made as at the 
old college of the East India Company, now a public school, 
where Malthus was a teacher and John Lawrence fought many 
a battle with his fists. 

I have spoken of the limited fields of history j)rescribed by 
the Oxford and Cambridge certificate examinations, but the 
schools naturally do not limit their courses of study by their 
requirements. In a number of them a prescribed cycle of his- 
tory is laid down. This system is championed by some mas- 
ters and condemned by others. 

A specimen of such a cycle may be taken from the calendar 
for 1896 of Winchester College, the oldest public school in Eng- 
land, founded in 1387. The fall term at Winchester is known 
as the short half, the winter term as common time, and the term 
following Easter to August 1 as cloister time. Common time 
and cloister time together form the long half. The highest 
class is known as the sixth book, for which there was the his- 
tory cycle covering four years. 

Long half: Hallam's Middle Ages. 
Short half: Greek history to 435 B. C. 

Long half: The Reign of Henry VIII. 
Short half: Roman history, 133-31 B. C. 

Long half: The Reign of Charles I. 

Short half: Eoman history, 31 B. C.-305 A. D. 

Long half: English history, 1215-1327. 
Short half: Bryce's Holy Roman Empire. 

It is hard to make out much orderly sequence or deliberate 
teaching purpose in such an arrangement, and it would seem 
that a pupil following such an order would get a confused 
impression of the course of the world's history. But probably, 
like many other things in the English school curriculum, it is 
a traditional growth and not founded on any distiuct peda- 
gogical purpose. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 545 

Much easier to understand is the eycie for the other classes 
in the school as follows : 

1896.— Short half: Greek history after 432 B. C. 
1897. — Common time: Roman history to 200 B. C. 

Cloister time: Roman history after 200 B. C. 

Short half: Student's Gibbon to Justinian. 

1898. — Common time: Student's Gibbon from Mahomet. 

Cloister time: English history, Tudor period. 

Short half: English history, Stuart period. 

1899.— Common time: Greek history to 432 B. C. 

It has been said that the fields of history usually covered in 
the English public schools are Greek, Bornan, and English 
history. It should be added that in many schools there is 
considerable teaching of Biblical history under the head of 
scripture knowledge, as well as the outline history of the 
English church. 

European history, except where it is in close contact with 
English history, is not formally and generally recognized in 
the school curriculum. Occasionally a school will be found 
where the enthusiastic interest of a master has secured for 
his form some recognition of a particular period of European 
history apart from English history. To what extent this 
casual and incidental teaching of history goes on depends 
upon the enthusiastic zeal of the master and the disposition 
of the head-master to encourage or discourage it. In the 
year 1893-94 the upper bench of the Sixth at Eugby took 
Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Eeformation, and part of 
Oman's The Dark Ages. Indeed, in this somewhat irregular 
way, the pupils learn considerable history outside of the stated 
and formal curriculum. The form masters in the higher forms 
on the classical side often lay stress upon the writings of Livy, 
Cicero, Tacitus, and Thucydides as history, as well as litera- 
ture or philology. At Harrow, under Mr. Bowen, the master 
of the modern side, the books read are often distinctly of a 
historical character. Books like Lazare Hoche, Campagne 
de Bussie, Charles XII, and Beresford- Webb's German His- 
torical Beading Book, are cases in point. They are studied 
not only from a language point of view, but also with regard 
to the study of history. 

This incidental teaching of history in some schools takes 
the place of practice in writing Greek or Latin verse, and is 
known as verse equivalent. In 1897, at Eugby, the boys of 
hist 98 35 



546 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

some of the forms who were excused from verse-making were 
compelled to take as verse equivalent the three following- 
books in the Lent term, Seeley's The Expansion of England; 
in the summer term, as appropriate to the Diamond Jubilee, 
McCarthy's Short History of Our Own Times, and during the 
winter term, Bosworth- Smith's Eome and Carthage. In one 
exercise a week the class is tested on its knowledge of about 
thirty pages of the text-book, with comment by the teacher, 
and at the end of the term an examination is held on the 
work which has been covered. At Eton a similar system 
prevails, under the name of "extras," which, according to the 
syllabus, provided an interesting study of some historical and 
political questions. 

With regard to English history, I found that comparatively 
little attention was paid to the history of Great Britain during 
the present century, or, to speak more accurately, since the 
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. This is unfortunate, and 
is hardly in accord with the Jubilee spirit in 1897, which 
gloried in the Victorian era. Verily, the social and constitu- 
tional progress of England during the present century makes 
it one of its most interesting and important epochs, especially 
with regard to colonial expansion and social betterment. Yet 
the pupil at the English secondary school does not receive 
much instruction in this important era of the nation. None 
of the Oxford and Cambridge examination papers that I have 
examined since 1890 specify any period of English history 
later than 1815. The same is true of the examination papers 
of a number of schools in which little was found touching upon 
the Victorian era, save in the case of Malvern and Clifton, two 
of the newest schools. When I asked for an explanation of 
this fact, one reply given was that a careful study of the 
period would rake up burning questions, on which family and 
inherited prejudices were very strong. For this reason it was 
thought best to avoid anything that would lead to wrangling 
disputation. 

Possibly it may be due to the same insufficient reason that 
the study of what is called in this country civil government 
is almost entirely neglected in English secondary schools. It 
is not mentioned in their courses of study, and the only in- 
stance in which I found it pursued as an independent study 
was at Haileybury, where a small class was taught by one of the 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 547 

teachers of history already mentioned, who was using with his 
form Miss Buckland's little primer, Our National Institutions. 
This seems to be a very serious defect of the secondary school 
course in England, as compared with Germany, France, or the 
United States. In support of this statement I may quote 
from a striking address on 1 "The teaching of civic duty," by 
an Englishman for whom citizens of the United States have a 
high regard, the Hon. James Bryce: 

"Boys leave our so-called secondary schools at 16, 17, and 
18, leave even some of the greatest and most costly schools in 
the country, having received no regular instruction in the 
principles and working of the British constitution, much less 
in their own system of local government, wherein many of 
them as local magnates are soon called upon to take part." 

Professor Bryce's noble plea was delivered to an audience 
of elementary schoolmasters, but it is a trumpet call to public 
schoolmasters, as well as to the audience before which it was 
spoken. The admirable syllabus on "The life and duties of 
the citizen," which is prescribed by the- national educational 
department in the Evening Continuation School Code, might 
well be followed in the great public schools. 

The time allowance for the regular teaching of history in 
most English schools shows less consideration for the subject 
than in France or Germany. In few schools are more than 
two hours per week given to class-room work in history; but 
at least one hour a week is given to history in each year of 
the school course, which in the case of most public schools 
covers five or six years. The order of teaching the different 
periods of history varies very much, and as in the cycles from 
Winchester, already quoted, seems not to have been arranged 
on any distinct pedagogical plan. 

The subordinate position of history in the school courses is 
indicated not only by the small time allotment, but also by 
the fact that not until recently was this subject taught by 
specialists, viz, by men who had been specially trained in the 
subject of history and had devoted themselves very largely to 
teaching that subject. The spirit of the English secondary 
school is against specialization in teaching, except in the case 
of science, modern languages, and mathematics. The form 
master usually teaches Latin, Greek, scripture, English, and 



] Contemporary Review. July, 1893, 64, p. 14. Forum, July, 1893, 18, p. 552. 



548 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

history, while in the latter subject he has had no especial 
training. A welcome reform in this respect has already begun, 
which it is to be hoped will probably gain ground and improve 
the history teaching in the schools. Several of the larger 
schools have now on their staff a history master, who has won 
distinction in the honor school of history afc Oxford, and will 
naturally bring to the teaching of this important subject the 
enthusiasm and skill which are likely to win a larger recogni- 
tion for this subject in the school curriculum in the future. It 
is also to be hoped that it may win individual recognition and 
a place on the printed course of study, and not, as is often the 
case at present, be classed under English with English litera- 
ture. Then the searcher after knowledge will be able to tell 
more easily what is the average time allotment for history, and 
this worthy subject will gain something in estimation by being 
classed by itself, separate from other English branches. 

As to methods of teaching history, the system in the lower 
form generally consists of the thorough study of a reliable, 
but not elaborate, text-book. The work of the pupil is more 
often tested by written work than by oral questioning. The 
custom of "fluent" recitations on an assigned topic, which I 
have seen admirably carried on in German gymnasia, is not 
at all common in English schools. Certainly one of the valu- 
able benefits of studying history ought to be the development 
of the power of oral expression, which such methods promote. 
Equally valuable also is the mental discipline and acuteness 
to be derived from rapid and incisive questioning and prompt 
answers, a system of cross-examination, which is sometimes 
known in this country under the phrase " quiz." The absence 
of this system of fluent recitation of historical facts is prob- 
ably due to the prejudice so common in England against flu- 
ency of speech as a possible indication of superficiality or lack 
of scholarship. 

The system of teaching known in the United States as the 
"library method," or the " laboratory method," viz, the use of 
several books in the study of a list of topics, is seldom found 
except in the highest forms where pupils are making special 
preparation for the history-scholarship examinations at the 
universities. At this stage of the course the text-book work 
is supplemented by lectures by the teacher, so that the pupils 
attain facility in taking notes, and by collateral reading, so 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 549 

that they learn how to consult with permanent profit the books 
in a library. In this way, to use Dr. Arnold's phrase, "they 
learn how to read." They thus become acquainted with the 
methods which will be of great service to them when they go in 
for honors in the School of History at Oxford or the Historical 
Tripos at Cambridge. This power of going to the heart of a 
book and securing a deposit of its contents in their minds is 
a characteristic of the best boys in the sixth at a great public 
school; for hard and thorough reading is the essential condi- 
tion of success in winning a school exhibition or an entrance 
college scholarship, which are the intellectual honors crowning 
an able boy's career at school. Such reading, however, is 
generally confined to secondary histories. The earnest use of 
the sources with secondary-school pupils is very rare in Eng- 
land, and not much used with the average student at the 
universities. Essay writing on historical subjects is very 
commonly followed in the higher forms with success and profit, 
not only for its own sake as a means of culture, but also as a 
means of preparatory training for this work in the university, 
inasmuch as in the honor school of history at Oxford one of 
the most important and valuable means of training is the 
essay work with the tutor. 

In conclusion, it would hardly be proper for a visitor with 
so limited an experience of the actual teaching of history in 
English schools, to give a general judgment as to the quality 
of the teaching of this important subject in the great public 
schools. He may be permitted to quote instead the public 
testimony on this point of three Englishmen who are compe- 
tent judges. The first is Professor Bryce, who in the article 
already referred to, says: "History is of all subjects which 
schools attempt to handle perhaps the worst taught." The 
second is an eminent teacher and writer of history and an old 
public-school boy. He says, "The teaching of history in the 
English public schools is not nearly so efficient as teaching in 
other branches of knowledge." The third is the editor of the 
London Journal of Education and master of the modern side in 
the Merchant Taylor's school. His words in the issue of Feb- 
ruary, 1899, are: " It is generally admitted that the teaching 
of history is exceedingly bad in our schools— with, of course, 
marked exceptions." 

Secondary education is at present the burning question 



550 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

among educators in England, and a great change in the rela- 
tion of the schools to the Government draweth nigh. Doubt- 
less the next few years will see a general improvement in 
history teaching, especially if the classicists will be willing to 
surrender to the historians a little of the time allotment which 
they now demand for the ancient languages. Yet, with all the 
deficiencies of the present situation, the writer, in his admira- 
tion for the work of the English public school, feels it but just 
to say that the history teaching reflects the general character- 
istics of the whole school system — thoroughness and virility. 



Appendix VI. 

HISTORY IN CANADIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 1 
By George M. Wrong. 

In Canada there lias been no really great crisis like that of 
the Eevolution or of the civil war in the United States to 
intensify historical interest. Many a citizen of Canada is not 
sure whether the old land of his ancestors or the new one of 
his birth or adoption is his real country. He still belongs to 
both, and his patriotic interest is widely diffused. Perhaps, 
as a result, he is more cosmopolitan, but he is usually wanting 
in that almost fierce love for his country's past which in the 
United States is so keen a stimulus to historical study. A 
natural situation in Canada inimical to history has hot been 
improved by enlightened policy. The Canadian universities, 
like the Scotch, have, until recently, quite neglected history. 
The subject had only a minor place on the curriculum and no 
adequate training in historical method was furnished. Hap- 
pily a marked change has taken place. In the two largest 
Canadian universities (the University of Toronto and McGill 
University) history now occupies a respectable place, though 
it still receives far less attention than universities of similar 
importance give it in the United States. 

There is no uniform educational system iu Canada.; the gov- 
ernment of each Province is charged with education as is that 
of each State in the United States. The Federal Govern- 
ment in Canada has not even that shadowy oversight of edu- 
cation that is implied in the United States by the existence of 
a Federal Commissioner of Education. Nearly five of the six 
millions of people in Canada are in the Provinces of Ontario 
and Quebec. In Quebec the schools are chiefly French, and 
are largely under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. 
Obviously the Province of Ontario must be the principal field 

1 This short article on "History in the Canadian Schools" was written, at the request 
of the committee, by Professor Wrong, piofessor of history in the University of Toronto. 
No study of Canadian schools has been made by the committee. 

551 



552 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

of our inquiries. This Province, containing nearly half of 
the population of Canada, owes the first organization of its 
government to the American Eevolution. Thousands of Loy- 
alists, who refused to consent to the severance of the Ameri 
can colonies from Great Britain, found a refuge in what is now 
Ontario. Many of them belonged to the educated classes, and 
had a zeal for education similar to that of the New England 
pioneers. The early governors, too, were on the whole enlight- 
ened men, who for many years wielded a power almost des- 
potic. Extensive lands were set apart for educational pur- 
poses. For a long time the Anglican Church struggled to 
control State-aided education. She failed in the end. Eoman 
Catholics still have separate schools supported by the rates 
levied on the taxpayers adhering to that church, but the 
remainder of the State system is now completely secularized. 

The secondary schools are numerous, and are sometimes 
found in villages of less than 1,000 inhabitants. The State 
university for a long time charged an annual fee of only $10. 
It is now but $40, so that a college course is within the reach of 
a large number. It is becoming not uncommon for a farmer's 
son to take a degree in the university before settling down 
upon the farm. 

Until within the last ten years classics and mathematics 
claimed chief attention. Now modern languages are on about 
the same footing with them, the relative standard in mathe- 
matics being probably the highest of all the subjects. History 
has a fairly good place in the lower forms, but an unimportant 
one in the work for the college entrance examination, being 
worth only one-third of the value of Greek or Latin, and one- 
sixth of that of mathematics. 

The curriculum in the secondary schools of Ontario is limited 
to the history of ancient Greece and Eome, of England, and of 
Canada. In some of the smaller provinces an outline of gen- 
eral history is included. History is compulsory in every year 
of the course, which usually extends over about four years. 
In some schools five hours a week are given to history ; the 
average would be about three hours. The larger schools with 
five or more teachers have usually a specialist devoted to his- 
tory alone. In some of the smaller schools any member of the 
staff may have a class in history thrust upon him. 

Let me summarize briefly my criticisms and suggestions: 

1. The adequate training of the teacher was for a long time 
neglected. There has been a two-fold reason for this. On the 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 553 

one hand the real difficulties both of teaching and of learning 
history have been underestimated. Eoederer, the minister of 
the first Napoleon, banished the teaching of history from the 
French schools on the ground that the subject could easily be 
learned without being taught. This view is still widespread. 
In Canada it has hardly yet been realized that the truths of 
history are subtle and may easily be missed, and that to teach it 
there must be added to a thoughful study of the facts a vigorous 
and disciplined imagination and the power of arranging com- 
plex material effectively. Because the teaching was usually 
bad, pupils came to regard history as a dreary and painful 
study. The other cause of the insufficient training of teachers 
of history has been the defective work of the universities, 
already referred to. The education department for Ontario has 
been quick to utilize for the schools the better work which the 
colleges are now doing in history. There is a system of spe- 
cialist certificates for teachers. To teach classics, mathematics, 
etc., a high specialistic qualification had long been required. 
For a long time any one was allowed to teach history, but now 
a specialist in history must pass examinations hardly less diffi- 
cult than those for an honor degree in modern history at Oxford. 
The improvement of the teaching of history, as a result of this 
policy, will probably soon be very marked. Of course it will 
still happen in the smaller schools that history will be taught 
by masters with no special qualifications, for these schools can 
not have a master devoted exclusively to history. The point 
gained, however, is that history is now on the same footing as 
other departments with regard to specialistic training. 

2. The curriculum is defective. The history of Greece and 
Rome to the Augustan age, and that of England and Canada, 
do not form a well-balanced course of historical study. It 
leaves untouched, almost, the great epochs of continental 
Europe, and makes it possible for a student to go up to the 
university having scarcely heard of St. Bernard, Charles V, 
Frederick the Great, or Mirabeau. In Canada, a part of the 
British Empire, pupils know nothing of other portions of the 
same Empire — India or Australia, and as far as I can learn, 
the history of the United States is not taught in any Canadian 
school. The curriculum suggested in the foregoing report 
is hardly suitable for Canada, but that portion of it which 
relates to the history of continental Europe might well be 
adopted in the Canadian schools. 



554 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

3. The time given to history is usually, though not always, 
inadequate. New subjects are making claims, sometimes ex- 
travagant, upon the time of the schools. In a large secondary 
school in Toronto, the time available weekly was divided into 
thirty-five periods. Of these the physical sciences claimed at 
first twenty-two, much to the amusement of the other depart- 
ments. History with no technical language, appears to be 
easier than chemistry, and it may plausibly be urged that it 
should take a minor place upon the time table. Friends of 
histoiy ought to insist that an extension of the curriculum 
should go band in hand with an extension of the time for instruc- 
tion. It should be laid down as a general rule that the teach- 
ing must cover the whole ground of the curriculum. The 
pupils usually remember what they read in the text-book only 
when they hear it talked about in the class. 

4. The text-books are inferior in quality. The education 
department requires the same text-book to be used in all the 
schools. For English history the highest classes use Green's 
" Short History of the English People" — by far the best book 
on the list, but, in my opinion not a good text-book. The other 
books are, on the whole, colorless compilations, "confused in 
arrangement," as one teacher writes me, "bad in diction, and 
with no sense of proportion." These defects are not peculiar 
to the books used in Canada. To pick out the salient features 
of a nation's history and to describe them with both scientific 
precision and literary charm are tasks requiring rare gifts. 
Until our best minds turn to the unattractive but useful task 
of writing history text-books, we shall not have what we need. 

One may say in closing that though history has not as yet 
really flourished in the Canadian schools, its status is steadily 
improving. The key of the situation is really with the colleges. 
These train the teacher, and an able teacher properly trained 
will give dignity to and win a place for the subject. With 
such teachers the dreary history lesson has been transformed 
in some places in Canada into an animated lecture. Nearly 
every school has a library — often very incomplete, of course. 
A good teacher and a good library for his own needs, to which 
the pupils may also be referred — these will be the two best 
agents for improving the status of history. It is still true 
that the subject is often neglected, and I see no hope that a 
uniform standard can be adopted in all the secondary schools. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 555 

Those with a small staff sometimes try to cover as many sub- 
jects as do the larger schools, and the teaching of some branches 
must be slighted. One effective way of increasing the atten- 
tion to history in the work for college entrance would be to 
establish competitive scholarships at matriculation for excel- 
lence in history. Such scholarships have done much for Greek, 
Latin, and modern languages. They have not yet been offered 
in connection with history, and naturally the best pupils! bend 
their energies to the subjects that have the prospect of reward. 



Appendix VII. 

SOME BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON THE TEACHING 
OF HISTORY. 

The following titles have been selected from the vast num- 
ber of books and articles relating to history and its teaching, 
in the hope that they may prove helpful to teachers who may 
not already be acquainted with them. Longer lists will be 
found in Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of Amer- 
ican History, section 15, and at the beginning of the various 
chapters of Hinsdale's How to Study and Teach History. For 
discussions that have appeared since the publication of these 
works, see particularly the Educational Review, the School 
Review, and the Proceedfugs of the National Educational 
Association, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory 
Schools in the Middle States and Maryland, the similar Asso- 
ciation in New England, and of the New England History 
Teachers' Association. Mr. J. I. Wyer, of the library of the 
University of Nebraska, has compiled for the American His- 
torical Association an extensive Bibliography of the Study 
and Teaching of History, which it is hoped will soon be pub- 
lished. The prices quoted below are taken from the publish- 
ers' catalogues; in the case of works in foreign languages they 
do not include the cost of binding. 

1. Books with which Eatery Teacher of History should be 
Acquainted. 

Charles Kendall Adams, A Manual of Historical Literature. Third 

edition. New York, Harpers, 1889. $2.50. 
Contains an introduction on the study of history, "brief descriptions 
of the most important histories iu English, French, and German," and 
suggestions as to courses of reading on particular countries or periods. 
The work needs revision. Sonnenschein's Bibliography of History (re- 
printed from his Best Books and Reader's Guide, London, 1897, 4s. 6d.), is 
more recent, and in some respects more helpful. 
The American Historical Review. New York, Macmillan, quarterly 

since 1895. $3 a year (free to members of the American Historical 

Association). 
Every progressive teacher of history should keep abreast of current 
publications on historical topics. The most convenient method is by 
means of the book reviews and notes in the American Historical Review. 
556 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 557 

Edward Channing and Albert Bushnell Hart, Guide to the Study 
of American History. Boston, Giun, 1896. $2. 
Includes a consideration of methods and materials, a bibliography of 
American history, and a series of topical references. Especially intended 
for the teacher of American History. 

Burke Aaron Hinsdale, How to Study and Teach History, with Par- 
ticular Reference to the History of the United States. (International 
Education Series.) New York, Appleton, 1894. $1.50. 
'"No effort is made to tell the teacher just what he shall teach or just 
how he shall teach it. The aim is rather to state the uses of history, to 
define in a general way its field, to present and to illustrate criteria for 
the choice of facts, to emphasize the organization of facts with reference 
to the three principles of association, to indicate sources of information, 
to describe the qualifications of the teacher, and, finally, to illustrate 
causation and the grouping of facts by drawing the outlines of some 
important chapters of American history." Tbe book is written particu- 
larly for the use of teachers in elementary and secondary schools, and 
contains numerous references to books and articles on the subject. 
Charles Victor Langlois and Charles Seignobos, Introduction to 
the Study of History. Translated by G. G. Berry, with a preface by 
F. York Powell. New York, Holt, 1898. $2.25. 
The best brief treatise on the methods of historical investigation. 
Appendix I treats briefly of history in French secondary schools. 
Report of the Committee [of Ten] on Secondary School Studies. 
Washington Bureau of Education, 1893. Now out of print in this 
form. Also reprinted by the American Book Company, New York, 
1894. 30 cents. 
Pp. 162-203 contain the report of the Madison Conference on history, 
civil government, and political economy; pp. 185-200 are devoted to 
"methods of historical teaching." 

2. Other Noteworthy Books on Historical Methods. 

Mary Sheldon Barnes, Studies in Historical Method. Boston, Heath, 
1896. 90 cents. 
"Written especially for the teacher who wishes to specialize his work;" 
particularly suggestive in regard to children's ideas of history. Contains 
brief bibliographies; sources, pp. 8-10; helps for the study of current 
history, pp. 14-15; bibliographical aids, maps and atlases, chronologies, 
pp. 34-37; works on method, pp. 139-144. 

Johann Gustav Droysen, Outline of the Principles of History. Trans- 
lated by E. Benjamin Andrews. Boston, Ginn, 1893. $1. 
A philosophical discussion of the nature of history. 
Edward A. Freeman, Methods of Historical Study. London and New 
York, Macmillan, 1886. 
Interesting lectures on various aspects of historical study in general. 
G. Stanley Hall, editor. Methods of Teaching History. Second edi- 
tion. Boston, Heath, 1885. $1.50. 
A series of papers by teachers of history on various aspects of historical 
study, particularly as seen in colleges and universities. Now somewhat 
out of date ; a third edition is proposed. 



558 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

William Harrison Mace. Method in History. Boston, Ginn, 1897. $1. 
Treats of the "organization of historical material," particularly as illus- 
trated by American history. 

3. Ten Useful Articles on Methods op Teaching History in 
Secondary Schools. 

This short list contains only articles which deal directly and in a helpful 
way with problems of teaching; articles on the nature of historical study 
in general, on the place of history in schools, or on the arrangement of 
the curriculum in history are not included. 

Mary Sheldon Barnes. The Teaching of Local History. In Educa- 
tional Review (December, 1895), X, 481-488. 
A more special article on the same theme is that of 

R. G. Thwaites, The Study of Local History in the Wisconsin Schools, in 
Wisconsin Journal of Education (November, 1888), XVIII, 465-476. 

James Bryce, The Teachings of Civic Duty. In Forum (July, 1893), XV, 
552-566; Contemporary Review (July, 1893), LXIV, 14-28. 

Albert Bushnell Hart, How to Teach History in Secondary Schools. 
In Syracuse Academy (September, October, 1887), II, 256-265, 306-315. 
Reprinted in his Studies in American Education (New York, Longmans, 
1895), 91-121. 

Ray Greene Huling, History in Secondary Education. In Educational 
Review (May, June, 1894), VII, 448-459; VIII, 43-53. 

J. W. Macdonald, Civics by the Parliamentary Method. In Syracuse 
Academy (May, 1892), VII, 217-227. 

Practical Methods of Teaching History. In Educational Review 
(April, 1898), XV, 313-330. 
Report to the New England History Teachers' Association, with discus- 
sion by President Eliot. Printed also in the Register and Report of the 
First Annual Meeting of the Association, Boston, 1897. 

Report of the Conference* on Entrance Requirements in History 
(to the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools). 
In School Review (October, 1895), III, 469-485. 
For discussion of this report, see School Review (December, 1895), III, 

597-631; Educational Review (December, 1895), X, 417-429. 

James E. Russell, History and Geography in the Higher Schools of Ger- 
many. In School Review (May, October, 1897), V. 257-268, 539-547. 
Also forms part of his German Higher Schools (New York, Longmans, 
1899), 291-311. 

Lucy M. Salmon, The Teaching of History in Academies and Colleges. 
In Syracuse Academy (September, 1890), V. 283-292. 
Reprintet. in Woman and the Higher Education (New York, Harpers, 
1893), 131-152. 

Anna Boynton Thompson, Suggestions to Teachers. In Channing's 
Students' History of the United States (New York, Macmillan, 1898), 
XXIX-XXXV. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 559 

4. Valuable Works in Foreign Languages. 

Rafael Altamira, La Ensenanza de la Historia. Second edition, Madrid, 
Suarez, 1895. $2. 
Largely a description of the secondary and higher instruction in history 
in Europe and America. 

Ernst Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode. Second edition. 
Leipzig, Duncker and Huniblot, 1894. $3; bound, $3.50. 
An admirable manual, discussing the nature of historical science, its 
relations to other subjects, aud the principles of historical criticism and 
interpretation. Excellent bibliographies. 

Oskar Jager, Didaktik und Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichts. 
Municb, Beck, 1895. 75 cents. (Reprinted from Baumeister's Hand- 
buch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen.) 
Gives a detailed exposition of the methods of instruction in the various 
classes of the German gymnasium. 

Charles Victor Langlois, Manuel de Bibliographic Historique. Part I. 
Paris, Hachette, 1896. 60 cents. 
The best account of the bibliograpbical tools of tbe historian. 
Ernest Lavisse. A propos de nos Ecoles. Paris, Colin, 1895. 70 cents. 
M. Lavisse is an exceedingly stimulating writer on history and its 
teaching, but unfortunately his essays are scattered in various publica- 
tions. This volume includes (pp. 77-107) his report of 1890 on methods of 
teacbing history in secondary schools. 

5. Articles on the Teaching op History Written from the Point 
of View of English Schools. 

Alice Andrews, Teaching Modern History to Senior Classes. In Work 
and Play in Girl's Schools (London and New York, Longmans, 1899), 
124-158. $2.25. 

Oscar Browning, The Teaching of History in Schools. In Royal His- 
torical Society Transactions, new series, IV, 69-84. 

R. F. Charles, History Teaching in Schools. In London Journal of Edu- 
cation (June, 1895), XVII, 379. 

A. H. Garlick, A New Manual of Method. London and New York, Long- 
mans, 1896. $1.20. 
Chapter XIII deals with history. 

R. Somervell, Modern History. In P. A. Barnett's Teaching and Organi- 
zation (London and New York, Longmans, 1897), 161-179. $2. 

C. H. Spence, A. L. Smith, The Teaching of Modern Histoi'y. In Essays on 
Secondary Education, edited by Christopher Cookson (Oxford, Claren- 
don Press, 1898), 161-195. 

J. Wells, The Teaching of History in Schools. (A lecture delivered at the 
University Extension Summer Meeting in Oxford. ) London, Methuen, 
1892. 6 d. 

H. L. Withers, Ancient History. In P. A. Barnett's Teaching and Organi- 
zation (London and New York, Longmans, 1897), 180-198. 



Appendix YIII. 

MAPS AND ATLASES. 

Intelligent and effective teaching of history demands at 
every stage a well-chosen supply of maps and atlases. Besides 
a set of political and physical maps of the continents, such as 
are now found in almost every school, there are needed maps 
in greater detail, both political and physical, of the principal 
countries whose history is studied in the school, as well as sets 
of historical wall maps, indexed historical atlases, and a good 
modern reference atlas of the world. 1 Small outline maps in 
the possession of each pupil may also be used to advantage. 2 
This committee does not feel itself called upon to give a com- 
plete annotated catalogue of the maps and atlases available 
for use in secondary schools; but it seems to be within its 
province to suggest what may be regarded as the minimum 
geographical equipment for treating the various periods of 
history which have been outlined in the body of the report. 
The prices are quoted from publishers' price lists; in case of 
foreign works they do not include the duty, when imported by 
an individual. 

1. Ancient History. 

The best wall maps for the study of ancient geography are 
the Wandkarten zur alten Geschichte, prepared under the 
direction of Heinrich Kiepert and published in Berlin by 
D. Beimer. The American agents are Band, McNally & Co., 
Chicago. The American prices for individual maps, mounted 
on common rollers, run from $6 to $8; the full set in a case, 
with spring rollers, costs $88. In Germany single maps vary 
in price from 15 to 22 marks, according to map and mounting, 
and the cost of a set, without a case, is correspondingly less. 

1 Maps on lantern slides are much cheaper than wall maps, and may easily be prepared 
or modified to illustrate any desired subject. A collection of map slides sufficient for all 
tbe needs of secondary instruction in history may be obtained for $15 or $20, or even less. 

2 Such are the Outline Maps and Progressive Outline Maps published by D. C. Heath 
& Co., Boston; the suggestive Relief Practice Maps of William Beverly Harrison, New 
York; the Outline Maps of Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago; and the detailed sheets 
issued by the United States Geological Survey. 

560 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. 561 

The full set is desirable ; the maps of Greece, Italy, and the 
Roman Empire are indispensable. The school should also 
possess good physical wall maps of Greece, Italy, and the 
Mediterranean lands as a whole. 
The best desk atlas of ancient history is also — 

Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus. Twelve Maps of the Ancient World. Ameri- 
can edition, Boston, B. H. Sanborn & Co., 1892. $2. 

Others are — 

Ginn & Co.'s Classical Atlas. Boards, $1.40; cloth, $2.30 
Longmans' Classical Atlas. $2. 

At least one such atlas should always be at hand, and it 
may often be possible to require pupils to procure copies for 
themselves. 

A more elaborate work is — 

Spruner-Sieglin, Atlas Antiquus. Gotha, Perthes. In parts, 20 marks ; 
separate maps, 80 pfennigs each. 

For maps illustrating the early Middle Ages, see the follow- 
ing section. Some of the collections there mentioned also 
cover ancient history. The first part of MacOoun's Historical 
Geography Charts of Europe is entitled "Ancient and Clas- 
sical," and is sold separately (Boston, Silver, Burclett & Co., 
$15). 

2. Medieval and Modern History. 

The first essential for the teaching of mediaeval and modern 
history is a large map of Europe. Ordinary maps are apt to 
be too small to render much service in historical instruction. 
If the school can have but one large map it should be physical, 
since the detail of the modern political map obscures the fun- 
damental geographical features and confuses the pupil with 
modern boundary lines. 1 This should be supplemented by a 
series of historical wall maps, of which the most scholarly is 
the Historischer Wandatlas of Spruner-Bretschneider, a set of 
ten maps, 62 by 52 inches, covering the period from A. D. 350 
to 1815. (Gotha, Perthes, 1894; in loose sheets, 56 marks; 
mounted in a portfolio, 90 marks.) The medieval and modern 

i Physical features are conveniently brought out in exaggerated form by the relief 
maps prepared by Giuseppe Roggero, and published by G. B. Paravia & Co., Turin, Rome, 
and Florence. The set includes maps of Italy, Spain, Prance, Scandinavia, Germany, the 
British Isles, and the Balkan Peninsula, varying in size from 8 X 10 to 10 X 12 inches ; 
the price of each map is 2 lire, or, including packing and postage (but not the duty, when 
imported by an individual) about 50 cents. 

hist 98 36 



562 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

section of the Historical Geography Charts of Europe, pre- 
pared by Townsend MacOoun (Boston, Silver, Burdett & Co., 
$15), consists of nineteen loose maps on manila paper, cover- 
ing the period from A. D. 526 to 1894. Modern maps of indi- 
vidual European countries are also helpful, and, for the recent 
period, maps of the other continents are necessary. For spe- 
cial subjects and battlefields, single sheets of the various gov- 
ernment surveys will be found useful, and can be had through 
any foreign bookseller. 
The best small atlas of European history is: 

F. W. PUTZGEK, HlSTORISCHER SCHUL-ATLAS ZUK ALTEN, MITTLEREIN 

und neuen Geschichte. Twenty-second edition, Bielefeld and 
Leipzig, Velhagen and Klasing, 1897. 2 marks; bound, 2 marks 70 
pfennigs. 
It contains 67 large and 71 small maps, but has no index of places. 

Other small atlases are the following : 

C. Colbeck, The Public Schools Historical Atlas. Fourth edition. 

London and New York, Longmans, 1894. $1.50. 
One hundred and one maps and plans, and an index of places. Begins 
with the fourth century A. D. ; as the maps are for the most part repro- 
duced from the Epochs of Modern History, they are not very well dis- 
tributed over the period. 
Kiepert and Wolf, Historischer Schul-Atlas zur alten, mittleren 

und neueren Geschichte. Seventh edition. Berlin, D. Reimer, 

1896. Bound, 3 marks 60 pfennigs. Thirty-six maps. 
Robert Henlopen Labberton, Historical Atlas, 3800 B. C. to 1886 

A. D. Boston, Silver, Burdett & Co., 1886. $1.25. Sixty- four pages 

of maps. 

The school library should also possess one of the following 
excellent historical atlases, each of which covers ancient as 
well as mediaeval and modern history : 

Gustav Droysen, Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas. Bielefeld 
and Leipzig, Velhagen and Klasing, 1886. 20 marks ; bound, 25 
marks. 
Eighty-eight pages of maps, with descriptive text. 
Franz Schrader, Atlas de Geographie Historique. Paris, Hacbette, 
1896. Bound, 35 francs. 
Fifty-five double-page plates and a large number of sketch maps, with 
descriptive text and an index of places. 

Unfortunately, the only English atlas of the type of Schrader 
and Droysen, the Historical Atlas of Modern Europe, now ap- 
pearing at the Clarendon Press under the editorship of Begi- 
nald Lane Poole (to be completed in thirty parts, at 3s. (3d. 



THE STUDY OF HISTOKY IN SCHOOLS. 563 

each), is much more expensive, and covers only the mediaeval 
and modern periods. Freeman's Historical Geography of 
Europe (one volume of text and one of maps, London and 
New York, Longmans, 1881) is now out of print. 
Still greater detail will be found in — 

Spruner-Menke, Handatlas zur Geschichte des Mittelalters und 
der neuern Zeit. Gotha, Perthes, 1880. In parts, 85 marks 60 
pfennigs. Any map may be had separately at 1 mark 20 pfennigs. 

3. English History. 

The study of English history requires, in the first place, 
large wall maps, jjolitical and physical, of the British Isles, 
and also — 

Samuel Eawson Gardiner, School Atlas of English History (Lon- 
don and New York, Longmans, 1891, $1.50). 

For the proper comprehension of the continental and impe- 
rial aspects of English history there is also needed much of 
the equipment necessary for the study of general mediaeval 
and modern history. This is the case particularly as regards 
wall maps; smaller maps of Europe and the colonies are 
largely represented in Gardiner's admirable Atlas. 

4. American History. 

Information concerning the most serviceable maps for use in 
connection with classes in American history will be found in 
Channing and Hart's Guide to American History, section 21, 
and in the List of the Publications of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, which will be furnished on application to the 
Director of that Survey, Washington, D. 0. Schools should 
always possess a good general map of North America, and a 
large map of the United States, such as that published by the 
United States Land Office (price, unmounted, $1.25). Also 
useful is Albert Bushnell Hart's Epoch Maps Illustrating 
American History (New York, Longmans, 1891,50 cents; re- 
printed from the Epochs of American History). The United 
States Geological Survey publishes for its own use a three- 
sheet, and a reduced one-sheet, physical map of the United 
States, giving only rivers, lakes, and contours, without politi- 
cal boundaries or names. This map may sometimes be obtained 
by special arrangement with the Survey, and it is almost indis- 
pensable, since the modern map with its State boundaries gives 



564 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 

a wrong historical impression. These maps may best be sup- 
plemented by the various physiographic maps issued by the 
United States Geological Survey, and especially by the detailed 
topographic maps of small areas, sold in sheets at 5 cents each 
(and in lots of a hundred or more copies, whether of the same 
sheet or different sheets, at 2 cents each, a list may be obtained 
on application), and by sets of historical maps which the 
teacher may prepare on outlines, such as those mentioned in 
the note on page 560. Townsend MacCoun also has a series of 
Historical Charts of the United States (Boston, Silver, Burdett 
& Co., $15). 



ODEX. 



Adams, C. K., Manual of Historical Liter- 
ature, 556. 
Albums Historiques, 537. 
Alexander, conquests, 458. 
Altamira, Raphael, La Enserianza de la 

Historia, 533, 559. 
-America, as a world, power, 447. 
American Historical Association, discus- 
sions of history, 434. 

discussion of report, 476. 

investigation of entrance requirements, 
489. 

paper on German schools, 519. 
American Historical Review, 556. 
American history, time allowance, 443. 

discussion, 447, 448. 

combination with English, 451. 

in grammar schools, 448. 

relations with England, 463. 

treatment of, 467-471. 

colonial, 467. 

industrial, 468. 

military, 468. 

institutional, 468. 

social and industrial, 468. 

economic, 468. 

movement, 470. 

through intensive study, 486. 

relation with European, 517. 

in eighth grade, 517. 

not to be exclusive, 530. 

maps and atlases, 560. 
American schools, conditions in, 435, 499-510. 

study of history, 511-518. 

information, how obtained, 499. 

choice of subjects, 500. 

order of subjects, 500. 

separate college course, 501. 

time given, 501. 

text-books, 502. 

collateral reading, 503. 

written work, 503. 

use of sources, 504. 

teachers, 504. 

college requirements, 504. 

summary, 505. 

copy of circular, 506. 

examples of courses, 507-510. 

history below secondary schools, 511-518. 

fundamentals in, 514. 



Ancient history, time allowance, 443. 

as a held, 44G, 449-450. 

importance, 4*7, 531. 

social, 449. 

appreciation of, 453. 

Roman empire neglected, 457. 

relations of Greece and Rome, 458. 

study of Orient, 456, 457. 

relations with classics, 456, 493. 

Greek history, 457. 

Roman history, 458. 

Livy, a good republican, 458. 

Augustus, 453, 458. 

importance, 493. 

in American schools, 500, 501. 

in fifth grade, 517. 

in German schools, 523. 

in French schools, 535. 

in English schools, 541, 543. 

maps and atlases, 560, 561. 
Andrews, Alice, Teaching Modern History, 
559. 

"Work and Play in Girls' Schools, 559. 
Anglo-Saxon period, less important, 465. 
Associations of colleges and preparatory 
schools, 432. 

proceedings, 556. 
Assyria, History of; 457. 
Athens. (See Ancient History.) 
Atlases, bibliography of, 560-564. (See also 

Geography.) 
Bale, history in, 435. 

Barnes, Mary S., Studies in Historical 
Method, 557. 

Teaching of Local History, 558. 
Barnett, P. A., Teaching and Organization, 

559. 
Bernheim, Ernst, Lehrbuch der historischen 

methode, 559. 
Bibliography, of the teaching of history, 556- 
559. 

of geographical works, 560-564. 
Biography, in fourth grade, 516. 
Books, use of, 442, 475, 476, 477. (See also 
Bibliography, reading, sources, written 
work.) 
Botany. (See Science.) 
Browning, Oscar, Teaching of History in 

Schools, 559. 
Bryce, James, Teaching of Civic Duty, 558. 



TI 



INDEX. 



Buildings, as sources, 485. 

Bureau of Education. (See Commissioner of 

Education.) 
Burke, Edmund, masterpiece, 475. 
Calvin, John, place in history, 4G0. 
Canada, history in secondary schools, 551- 
555. 
difficulties, 551. 
in universities, 551. 
educational system, 551. 
loyalists, 552. 
history included, 552 
programme, 552. 
training of teachers, 552-554. 
incompleteness of programme, 553. 
time allowance too small, 554. 
text-books inferior, 554. 
improvement, 554. 
Channing, Edward, Guide to the Study of 
American History, 556, 557, 563. 
Students' History of the United States, 
558. 
Charles, B. F., History Teaching in Schools, 

559. 
Chronological method in American schools, 
500. 
in French schools, 535. 
Church, history of, 447. 
central figure, 460. 
history, in German schools, 527. 
relation wilh Canadian schools, 551, 552 
Circles, in German instruction, 523-526. 
Circular of information. 499. 
copy of, 506. 

sent out to schools, 506-507. 
sent by Miss Salmon, 511. 
Citizenship, through history, 438-440, 491. 
study of European history, 447. 
religion in the common schools, 515. (See 
also Patriotism.) 
Civil Government, preparation for citizen- 
ship, 438-440. 
as a field, 447. 

English institutions, 464-465. 
treatment, 471-473. 
importance, 471. 
topics, 471, 472. 
practical, 472. 
text-books, 473. 
intensive study, 486. 

neglected in English schools, 546. (Sse 
also United States.) 
Classics, correlation with history, 445, 450, 
457. 
compared with history, 475, 492, 493. 
in Germany, 525, 527, 528. (See also An- 
cient History.) 
Colbeck, C, Public Schools Historical 

Atlas, 562. 
Colleges, separate preparation for, in his- 
tory, 501. 



Colleges, actual requirements in history, 
505. 

history in Canada, 551. (See also En- 
trance Requirements.) 
Colleges, in France, 534. 
Colonies, development of English, 466. 

history, less important, 467. (See also 
America,- United States.) 
Commissioner of Education, statistics of 

historical pupils, 430. 
Committee of Seven, how appointed, 489. 

methods of investigation, 430-437. 

investigation by circular, 499. 

replies, 499. 

analysis of replies, 500-506. 

copy of circular, 506, 507. 

examples of courses, 507-510. 

knowledge of schools, 505, 506. 

investigations in Germany, 519. 

investigations in France, 533. 

investigations in England, 539. 
Committee of Ten, on college courses, 501. 

report on secondary school studies, 558. 

(See also Madison Conference.) 
Concentric system in Germany, 523-525. 
Constitution, see Civil Government. 
Continuity, of historical study, 443-446. 
Cookson, Christopher, Essays on Secondary 

Education, 559. 
Correlation of history, in Germany, 435, 522. 

with classics, 444, 445. 

with modern languages, 445. 

with literature, 515. 

(See also Classics. Languages.) 
Course of study, methods proposed, 443. 

time allowance, 443. 

four blocks, 446-451. 

general history, 451-456. 

specific treatment, 456-473. 

four years, 497. 

three years, 497. 

examples of actual, 507-510. 

variety of, 511. 

for lower schools, 516, 517. 

German, 517, 520, 523. 

by legislatures, 521. 

French, 534-537. 

English, 540, 544, 545. 

Canadian, 552, 553. 
Crusaders, study of, 467. 
Curriculum. (See Courses of Study.) 
Declaration of Independence, relations with 

England, 464. 
Discipline through history, 437-442, 444, 453. 

in German schools, 521. 
Documents, as sources, 483. 
Droysen, J. G., Outline of the Principles of 
History, 557. 

Allgemeiner historischer Hand-atlas, 562. 
Education, purpose ot, 437-442. 

in lower schools, 512. 



INDEX. 



Ill 



Education iu Germany, 521. 

in France, 533. 

in England, 543. 

in Canada, 551-555. 
Educational Review, articles on history, 

556,558. 
Edward I, allusion to, 448. 
Egypt, history of, 457. 
England, historical methods in, 434, 436. 

history teaching, 513. 

chaotic history teaching, 539, 544. 

private control, 539. 

public schools, 539. 

class rooms not visited, 540. 

classic side, 510. 

modern side, 540. 

university examinations, 541. 

programme, 541, 543-547. 

scholarships, 541, 542. 

pass and honor examinations, 542. 

field of history covered, 543. 

text-books, 543. 

succession of courses, 544, 545. 

scripture history, 545. 

European history, 545. 

verse equivalent, 545. 

English history, 546. 

civil government included, 546. 

time allowance, 547. 

teachers little trained, 547. 

methods, 548, 549. 

text-hooks, 548. 

recitations, 548. 

laboratory method, 548. 

sources rare, 549. 

Bryce's opinion, 549. 

public impression, 549. 
English, study of, compared with history, 

446, 449. 
English history, time allowance, 443. 

as a field, 447, 448. 

combination with European. 451. 

combination with American, 451. 

as a center of modern history, 462, 463, 464. 

importance, 463. 

relation to the United States, 463. 

institutions, 464. 

treatment, 464. 

development, 464. 

Anglo-Saxon less important, 465. 

local institutions, 465. 

northern history, 466. 

imperial development, 466. 

empire, 466. 

relations with Europe, 467. 

feudalism, 467. 

economic and social, 471. 

through intensive study, 486. 

in lower schools, 513. 

in seventh grade, 517. 



English history, when beginning, 530. 

in English schools, 539, 540, 543. 

examination subject iu England, 541. 

in England, 546. 

maps and atlases, 563. 
Entrance requirements to college, difficulty, 
489. 

purpose of this report, 489. 

for college pupils, 490. 

simplification, 490. 

importance, 491. 

unit, 491. 

with options, 491. 

with partial options, 492. 

with prescribed studies, 492. 

with fixed courses, 492. 

preparation for classical course, 492, 493. 

for Latin course, 494. 

for scientific course, 494. 

for English course, 494. 

general recommendations, 494. 

argument for a substantial course, 495. 

examinations, 495-497. 

separate preparatory college course, 501, 
506, 529. 

New York conference report, 505. 

queries on,' 507. 

warped by classics, 531. 

in England, 540, 54 J. 
Epochs in modern history, 461. 

episodic method, 461. 
Ethical value of history, 442. 
Europe, historical methods in, 434-437. 

maps of, 560-563. 
European history, combination with Eng 
lish,451. 

in American schools, 500, 501. 

neglect in lower schools, 513. 

in sixth grade, 517. 

relation with American, 517. 

in German schools, 523. 

in English schools, 514. 545-546. 

(See also Mediaeval, Modern.) 
Examinations, for entrance to college, 495, 
496. 

difficulties, 496. 

remedy, 496. 

test of abilities, 496. 

command of extracts, 497. 

additional written work, 497. 

oral conferences, 497. 

courses in history recommended by the 
committee, 497-498. 
Federation, subject for intensive study, 

486. 
Feudalism, English, 467. 
Field of history. (See Courses.) 
Foreign schools. (Sec Canada, England, 

France, Germany.) 
Four .years' course, 446-451. 



IV 



INDEX. 



Fox, George L., investigations in England, 
434. 

History in Englisli Secondary Schools, 
539-550. 
France, historical methods in, 434, 435, 437. 

in mediaeval and modern history, 461, 462. 

patriotism through history ,|512. 

superior history teaching, 513. 

report on German schools, 520. 

relation of history to classics, 533. 

patriotism, 533. 

lycees, 554. 

colleges, 534. 

time allowance, 534. 

programme, 535. 

chronological treatment, 535. 

comparison with German circles, 535. 

routine spirit, 536. 

dictation system, 536. 

illustrations, 536. 

collateral reading, 537. 

appointment of teachers, 537. 

training of teachers, 537. 

text-hooks, 538. 

improvements, 538. 
Freeman, E. A., Methods of Historical 
Study, 557. 

Historical Geography of Europe, 563. 
French Revolution, appreciation of, 454. 

(See also France.) 
Gardiner, S. R., School Atlas of English 

History, 563. 
Garlick, A. H., New Manual of Method, 559. 
General history, discussion of, 452-456. 

in American schools, 500, 501. 

query on, 506. 

(See also Courses.) 
Geography, use of, 478. 

in German schools, 528. 

hlbliography of maps and atlases, 560-564. 
Germany, historical methods in, 434-436. 

patriotism through history, 512. 

superior teaching, 513. 

information on schools, 519. 

programmes, 519. 

early reports on, 520. 

Gymnasia, 520. 

Real-Gymnasia, 520. 

Oherreal-Schulen, 520. 

symmetric education, 520. 

influence of Herhart, 520. 

expert influence, 521. 

German hoy, 521. 

no personal opinions, 522. 

correlation in, 522. 

object of history, 522. 

subject-matter, 523. 

three concentric circles, 523. 

ancient history, 523. 

mediieval history, 523. 



Germany, modern history, 524. 

second circle, 524. 

social and economic history, 524. 

patriotism, 525. 

results, 525. 

psychological treatment, 526. 

time allowance, 527. 

correlation, 528. 

illustrations, 528. 

story telling, 528. 

text-book, 528. 

assimilation, 529. 

centralization, 529. 

distinctive features, 529. 

lessons for Americans, 529. 

breadth of treatment, 530. 

preparation for universities, 531. 

double purpose, 532. 
Ginn, Classical Atlas, 561. 
Government. (See Civil Government.) 
Grades, history in, 511-518. 
Grammar school, history in, 449, 511-518. 
Greece. (See Ancient History.) 
Greek, correlation with history, 445, 449, 450. 
Gymnasia, Germany, history in, 434, 519-532. 
Haileybury College, an English public 

school, 543. 
Hall, G. S., Methods of Teaching History, 

557. 
Hart, Albert Bushnell, Guide to American 
History, 556, 557, 563. 

How to Teach History, 558. 

Studies in American Education, 558. 

Epoch Maps Illustrating American His- 
tory, 563. 

Epochs of American History, 563. 
Hashins, Charles H., investigation in 
France, 434. 

History in French Lyc6es, 533-538. 
Herhart, influence in Germany, 520. 
High School. (See American Schools; 

Courses.) 
Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach 

History, 556-557. 
Historical-mindedness, habit of, 439. 
Holidays, illustrations for history, 515. 
Huling, R. G., History in Secondary Educa- 
tion, 558. 
Illustrations, as sources, 485. 

in German schools, 528. 

in French schools, 536. 
Industrial history, discussion, 468-471. 
Information through history, 442, 444, 454, 

474, 475. 
Institutional history, time allowance, 443. 
Intensive study, 486. 

Investigation, compared with laboratory 
work, 441. 

scientific habit, 23. 

(See also Sources.) 



INDEX. 



V 



Ireland, history neglected, 466. 
Jager, Oskar, on history in German schools 
524. 
Didaktik und Methodik des Geschicht- 
sunterrichts, 559. 
Judgment, training through history, 440- 

442. 
Kiepert, H., Wandkarten zur alten Ge- 
schichte, 560. 
Atlas Antiquus, 561. 
Kiepert and Wolf, Historischer Schul- Atlas, 

562. 
Lamberton, R. H., Historical Atlas, 562. 
Laboratory work. (See Sources.) 
Lange, Bilder zur Geschichte, 485. 
Langlois, C. V., Manuel de Bibliographie 

Historique, 559. 
Langlois, C.Y., and Seignobos, Introduction 

to the Study of History, 557. 
Languages, compared with history, 446, 475. 
Lantern slides, as sources, 485. 

as historical illustrations, 560. 
Latin, correlation with history, 445, 449, 450. 
relation with history, 494. 
(See also Ancient history.) 
Lavisse, Ernest, A propos de nos Ecoles, 

559. 
Lectures, in school, 536. 
Liberty. (-See Civil government.) 
Library, for historical work, 142. 
for school work, 479, 480. 
accessibility, 480. 
intelligent use, 480. 
proper selection, 480. 
in English schools, 548. 
Livy, ghost of, 457, 458. 
Longmans, Classical Atlas, 561. 
Luther, place in history, 460. 
Lyeees, French, 533, 538. 

(See also France.) 
Mac Coun, T., Historical Geography Charts 
of Europe, 561, 562. 
Historical Charts of the United States, 
564. 
Macdonald, J. W., Civics by the Parlia- 
mentary method, 558. 
Mace, W. H., Method in History, 558. 
Madison Conference, work of, 430. 
suggestions by, 433. 
results of, 473, 474. 
quotation from, 476. 
on intensive study, 486. 
report on history, 557. 
Maps. (See Geography. ) 
Mathematics, compared with history, 474. 
Medieval and modern European history, 
time allowance, 443. 
as a field, 446, 447. 
relation to ancient, 459. 
rise of Christianity, 459. 



Mediaeval and modern European history, 
rise of Mohammedanism, 459. 
treatment, 459-463. 
period covered, 459. 
in secondary schools, 460. 
characteristic features, 460. 
termination, 460. 
in American schools, 500, 501. 
in sixth grade, 517. 
in German schools, 523, 526. 
in French schools, 535. 
maps and atlases, 561-563. 
Memorizing in history, 452. 
Methods, general uniformity of, 433. 
discussion of, 473-481. 
means of, 474, 475. 
in German schools, 528, 529. 
bibliography of, 556-559. 
(See also Courses, Reading, Recitations, 
Text-books, Sources, "Written Work.) 
Middle Ages. (See Mediaeval.) 
Middle States, study of history in, 500, 501, 

502, 503, 404. 
Military history, discussion, 468. 
Modern history, beginnings of, 460. 
lack of concentration, 461. 
studied through France, 461, 462. 
studied through England, 462. 
in German schools, 523. 
in French schools, 535. 
maps and atlases, 560, 562. 
Modern languages, correlation with his- 
tory, 444. 
Myths, in German instruction, 523. 
National Educational Association, investi- 
gation of entrance requirements, 432, 
489, 490. 
proceedings, 556. 
New England, study of history in, 500-502, 
504, 505. 
a good course, 497. 498. 
New England Association of Colleges and 
Preparatory Schools, report on entrance 
requirements, 558. 
New England History Teachers' Associa- 
tion, 432, 556. 
New York Conference, report on entrance 

requirements, 505. 
Note books, use of, 478. 
in New York report, 505. 
criticism of, 505. 
Novels, illustrations of history, 450. 
Options, in entrance requirements, 491. 
Orient, history of, importance, 456. 
survey of, 457. 
in German schools, 523, 527. 
in France, 535. 
Order of courses. (See Courses.) 
Outline maps, use of, 560. 
Oxford, relations with English schools, 541. 



VI 



INDEX. 



Parmentier, Albums Historiques,485. 
Patriotism, as an object of history, 512. 
in German schools, 524. 
(See also Citizenship, Civil Government.) 
Persia, history of, — . 
Poole, R. L., Historical Atlas of Modem 

Europe. 562. 
Primary schools, history in, 511-518. 
Programmes. (See Course of study.) 
Prussia. (See Germany.) 
Psychology of historical study, 438. 

in German instruction, 526. 
Public schools, in England, 539. 

in America. (See American schools.) 
Putzger, F. W., Historischer Sclml- Atlas, 

562. 
Reading, collateral, 477. 
in America, 502. 
in New York report, 505. 
query on, 507. 
in Erench schools, 536. 
in English schools, 545. 
Recitations, discussions of, 473-480. 
written, 477. 
in German schools, 528. 
in French schools, 536. 
in English schools, f 48. 
Reformation, history of, 447. 
Relief maps, 560, 561. 
Religion, in German schools, 527. 
Renaissance, history of, 447. 
Revolution, American, relations with Eng- 
land, 463. 
importance, 467, 468. 
subject for intensive study, 486. 
study of patriotism, 512. 
study of, 514. 
Rome. (See Ancient History.) 
Russell, J. E., History and Geography in 
the Higher Schools of Germany, 558. 
German higher schools, 558. 
Russia, history in, 437. 

Salmon, Lucy M., investigations in Ger- 
many, 434. 
On the Study of History below the Sec- 
ondary Schools, 511-518. 
History in the German Gymnasia, 519- 

532. 
Teaching of History, 558. 
Woman and the Higher Education, 558. 
Saxony. (See Germany.) 
Scholarships, English, in history, 541., 
Schrader, F., Atlas de Geographic His- 

torique, 562. 
Science, comparison with history, 437, 439, 
440, 441, 444, 445, 446, 449, 454, 455, 475, 497, 
482, 547. 
Scotland, history of, neglected, 466. 
Secondary Schools. (See American Schools, 
Canada, England, France, Germany.) 



Seemann, Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen, 

485. 
Sequence of courses, 446-451. 

importance of, 456. 
Smith, A. L., Teaching of Modern History, 

559. 
Social history, discussion, 467-471. 

study of, 530. 
Somervell, R., Modern History, 559. 
Sources, caution, 452. 
source, method discussed, 452, 455, 481. 
text-book necessary, 481. 
investigation disclaimed, 482. 
comparison with science, 482. 
personal interest, 482. 
vitalizing effect, 482. 
controversies avoided, 483. 
documents minimized, 483. 
travels and memoirs, 483. 
literary value, 481. 
use of topics, 484. 
buildings and illustrations, 485. 
subject summarized, 485. 
in American schools, 504. 
query on, 507. 

not used in French schools, 537. 
in English schools, 549. 
Sparta. (See Ancient History.) 
Spence, C. H., Teaching of Modern His- 
tory, 559. 
Spruner-Bretschneider, Historischer Wand- 
atlas, 561. 
Spruner-Mencke, Handatlas znr Geschichte 
des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit. 
563. 
Spruner-Sieglin, Atlas- Antiquus, 561. 
States, history of, in lower schools, 514. 
in grammar grades, 515. 
history courses, 511. 
making of curricula, 512, 513, 520. 
Stories, in lower schools, 515. 
in third grade, 516. 
in German schools, 528. 
Stubbs, Bishop. The Roots of the Present, 

473. 
Subjects. (See Courses of Study.) 
Switzerland, historical methods in, 434, 436. 

history in schools, 525. 
Teachers, discipline of history, 430. 
value of training, 433. 
evidences of success, 433. 
trained foreign, 437. 
necessity for training, 486, 504. 
difficulty of history, 487. 
broad knowledge, 487. 
ability to handle books, 488. 
sympathy, 488. 
historical-mindeduess, 488. 
method of training, 489. 
queries on training, 507. 



INDEX. 



VII 



Teachers in German schools, 529. 

in French schools, 537. 

in Canadian schools, 552. 
Text-books, proper use of, 476, 477. 

more than one, 476. 

with sources, 481. 

slavish use, 515. 

use in America, 502. 

in New York Report, 505. 

query on, 507. 

in lower schools, 515. 

in German schools, 528. 

in French schools, 536-538. 

in English schools, 548. 

in Canadian schools, 554. 
Thompson, Anna B., Suggestions to Teach- 
ers, 558. 
Thwaites, R. G., Study of Local History, 558. 
Time allowance, abroad, 437. 

defense of committee's, 450, 451. 

possiDie deviations, 451. 

in America, 501. 

in New York Report, 505. 

query on, 506. 

in German schools, 527. 

in France, 534, 535. 

in English schools, 547. 

in Canadian schools, 552, 554. 
Topics, from sources, 484. 

in French schools, 536. 

(See also Sources, Written "Work.) 
Training, through history, 454. 

(See also Teachers.) 



Training of teachers, in Canadian schools, 
552,553. 
i Travels, as sources, 483. 
United States, relations with England, 464. 
history in lower schools, 513. 
in grammar grades, 515. 
(See also American History.) 
[ United States Geological Survey, list of 
publications, 563. 
United States Land Office, map of, 563. 
University. (See Colleges.) 
Value of historical study, 437-443. 
i Webster, Daniel, masterpiece, 475. 
j Wales, history neglected, 466. 
! Wells, J., Teaching of History in Schools, 

559. 
! West, study of history in, 500, 501, 502, 504, 
505. 
a good Western programme, 509, 510. 
! Weyer, J. I., Bibliography of the Study and 
Teaching of History, 556. 
Wigs, historical significance, 470. 
Withers, H. L., Ancient History, 559. 
Written work, proper use, 477, 478. 
for young pupils, 477. 
advantages, 477. 
written recitations, 477. 
notebooks, 478. 
in American schools, 503. 
in New York Report, 505. 
query on, 507. 
I Wrong, G.M., History in Canadian Second- 
ary Schools, 551-555; 



AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. 



THE STUDY OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS 



REPORT BY THE COMMITTEE OF SEVEN. 

ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN,, Chairman. 
HERBERT B. ADAMS. CHARLES H. HASKINS. 

GEORGE L. FOX. LUCY M. SALMON. 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. H. MORSE STEPHENS. 



(From the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1898, 
pages 427-564, with index.) 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1899. 



FEB 3 1903 
D.ofD, 




LB D '09 



